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LIBR ARY OF CO NGRESS. 



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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 






A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE: 



OR, 



IFXIR, S T STRIPS 



IN 



COMPOSITION AND GBAMMAK, 



BY A TEACHER. 

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[Fruited for Private Circulation only,] 



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BROOKLYN : 
Rome Brothers, Printers, 377 Fulton Street. 

1831. 



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ENTERED ACCORDING TO ACT OF CONGRESS, IN THE VEAR 1881, BY 

ROME BROTHERS, 

IN THE OFFICE OF THE LIBRARIAN OF CONGRESS AT WASHINGTON. 



A PEIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTOR Y.. 



LESSON I. 
The Term " Language"; Words and Letters, 
[To be read in class.]* 

If I wish to communicate my thoughts to you I must use 
some kind of language. If you are mute, that is, if you 
cannot hear nor speak, I must use some sign-language, as, 
for example, one that is made with the fingers. If you can 
read writing, I may write you a letter. This is written 
language. If you can only read printing, then I must print 
what I have to say ; and this is also called written language. 
But the common way is by speaking, or, by the use of 
spoken language. If we both understand English, I may 
use the English language. If we both understand French, 
I may use the French language, and so on ; all people 



* To the teacher: The parts marked, " to be read in class," are not in- 
tended to be formally recited. Their purpose is, to awaken a preliminary in- 
terest in the child's mind — to prepare the way for a formal presentation of the 
subject. Nothing is introduced in them which the teacher need be con- 
cerned, at this point, to impress on the pupil's memory, since everything 
essential that is therein spoken of is afterward brought up again in a better 
shape for study and recitation. The teacher should, however, be very par- 
ticular to see that the children understand these familiar talks perfectly. If 
one day is not enough for this, take more ; and do not pass them till they are 
thoroughly comprehended by all. 



^ A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

using their own mother-tongue, or whatever other language 

they may have learned. Accordingly we say that 

2HF 3 " Language" is the way we hare of communicat- 
ing our thoughts to each other.* 

There are thousands of different languages in the world, 
used by thousands of different races, or tribes of men. All 
of them are made by putting ivords together ; and these 
words are composed of letters. In the English language a 
vast number of words are used — 100,000 and more ; but 
only 26 letters. These 26 letters, taken together, are 
called, as you all know, the alphabet. Every language has 
its own alphabet, some containing more, and some fewer 
letters than ours. 

Letters have two different forms : first, the common 
printed form, used in books, newspapers, etc. ; secondly, 
the common written form, or script, as it is called, used in 
personal correspondence, or letter-writing. Both of these 
forms are divided into two classes, capitals and small letters f 



LESSON II. - 
Letters : Vowels and Consonants. 
[To be read in class.] 

Each one of the 26 letters of our alphabet represents, or 
stands for one or more sounds of the voice. Take the word 
ape, and pronounce the first sound of it — the sound that is 
represented by the letter a. Open the mouth wide and let 
the voice flow from the throat without interruption for a 



* The pupil should commit this statement to memory. 

-j- Strange as it may seem, " small letters" are sometimes very large — much 
larger than some " capitals. " Compare these two letters — a, a. The first, 
which is the larger, is what is called a " small letter"; the second is a " capi- 
tal." The name, " small letters," is given to them because they are smaller 
than the capitals that are used along ivith them. Thus, in the word "America," 
the first letter is a " capital," and the rest are " small letters." 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 6 

moment, thus : a . Then, closing the lips, 

finish the word with a little puff of the breath — a pe. 

Again, take the word ant, and treat it the same way, thus • 

a nt. Again, take the word ark, and do likewise, 

thus : a rk. Again, take the word awl, and do the 

same, thus : a wl. Finally, take the word dare, and 

treat it in somewhat the same way. Here we have five 
different sounds, all represented by the same letter, a 
These sounds all come up from the throat and flow freely 
out of the mouth. Not all the alphabetic sounds are formed 
in that way. For example, take the word ape again. After 

prolonging the first sound for a moment, a , the lips 

are brought together and a simple puff of the breath is given 
to complete the word. That puff is represented by the let- 
ter p. It is nothing but the breath exploding at the lips. 
It does not come up out of the throat at all, as the sound 
of a does. Five of the letters of our alphabet represent 
sounds that are formed somewhat as the five sounds of a 
are formed ; and these we group together and call vowels. 
They are as follows : 

a, e 9 U o, u. 

To these must be added w and y as they are sounded in 
some ivords. The remaining 19 letters, together with w and 
y as they are sounded in other words are called conso- 
nants* 

Thus we see that the vowels* may be called voice-let- 
ters$ or throat»Ietters$ or letters whose sounds come up 
from the throat and flow freely out of the mouth ; while 
the consonants are something quite different. The letter 
p m as we have already seen in the -word ape, is nothing but 
the breath exploding at the lips, or, a kind of breath-let- 



* Latin vox, vocis, the voice. 



4 A PlilMER OF LANGUAGE. 

ter. Try the letter b as heard in bat. In uttering it, 
we close the lips and make a smothered sound in the throat ; 
so we say that b represents a smothered sound of the voice. 
If we should try all the other letters called "consonants," 
we should find that none of them represent sounds that 
come up from the throat and flow freely out of the mouth, 
but sounds that are held back, or interrupted, or forced out. 
Therefore we say that 

OF Tlie " yowels" represent, or stand for, sounds that come 
up from the throat and flow freely out of the mouth.* 

$W The " consonants" represent sounds that are stopped, or 
interrupted, or forced out,* 



LESSON III. 

Letters : Vocals, Subvocals and Aspirates. 

[To be read in class: — a hard lesson, which may be skipped if the 
teacher thinks best ] 

In the last lesson we took the word ape and separated it 
into its elementary sounds. We found that it began with a 
clear sound formed in the throat, and flowing out of the 
open mouth, thus : a . This is the first ele- 
mentary sound of the word. Then we found that in order 
to finish the word, Ave had to shut the lips and then open 
them again with a little puff of the breath. That gave us 
the second and final elementary sound of the word — the 
sound that is represented by the letter p, (The letter e in 
this word is silent, as we shall learn to say by and by.) 
After discussing the word ape, we next took up the words, 
ant ark. awl, and dare, and found that the letter a repre- 
sents five different throat- sounds. Then you were told that 
the letters a, e, i o, u represent sounds that are formed in 



The pupil should commit rhis statement to memory. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. & 

the throat, all in somewhat the same way as just explained. 
And these five letters we called vowels, or throat letters. 
You have now to learn another word. These various 
threat- sounds are called VOCalS, and the letters that repre 
sent them are also sometimes called vocals. 

The sound represented by the letter p, which is formed 
at the lips by a pvff of the breath, we call an aspirate,* 
or breath- letter , and the letter itself which represents that sound 
is also sometimes called an aspirate. There are several 
letters similar to this. The following is a complete list of 
them : 

p, t, €, h, k, f, q ? S, together ivith \ in some words. 

These letters, remember, represent asperates, or breath- 
sounds, and are themselves sometimes called aspirates or 
breath letters. 

The remaining letters form a third class. Take the word 
bat The first elementary sound of this word is begun in 
the throat, ivith the lips closed. But this closing of the lips 
prevents the sound from coming out ; and so it is called a 
Sllbvocal, or an imperfect vocal. The following are the 
subvocals : 

b, d, g, j, 1, in, a. r, v, w, y, z. 

Considered in this way, then, our alphabet is made up as 
follows : 

5 vocals, or throat-letters, 

a, e, i, 0, 11 : 
12 subvocals, or imperfect throat-letters, 

b,d,g,j,l,m,n, r, v, w, y, z; 
9 aspirates, or breath-letters, 

p, t, c, h, k, f, q, s, x. 



* Latin spiroy I breathe. 



O A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Beside these, there are several combinations of letters, 
(that is, two or more letters taken together), which repre- 
sent subvocal, or aspirate sounds, as, for example, th in 
with, llg in ring, which are Siibvocais ; and th in think, 
ch in rich, sh in push, wh in what, which are aspirates. 
Still further, we have the following combinations of vocals : 
Oi, as in boil. Oil, as in out. 
Oy, as in boy. OW, as in owl. 

These combinations of vocals are called diphthong's. They 
are mixed sounds, beginning with one vocal and ending 
w T ith another. 

Sometimes three vocals are combined in one sound, thus : 
ieu, as in adieu, eau, as in beauty. 

These combinations of vocals are called triphthongs. 



LESSON IV. 
Mental Pictures, or Ideas. 

[To be read in class.] 

There is in the back part of your eye a kind of mirror, 
called the retina on which an image is made of any object 
or collection of objects that you may happen to look at. 
If you look into another person's eye, you will see in it a 
perfect image of yourself, just like what you see when you 
look into a mirror. This image is formed on the retina of 
the eye you are looking into. Behind the retina there is a 
nerve called the optic nerve (or seeing nerve), proceeding 
from it to the brain. The brain is that part of us where the 
thinking is done ; and the business of the optic nerve is 
to take to the brain an impression of the image made on the 
retina ; and this impression on the brain is called a mental 
picture, or idea. The ear does a similar service. When 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. < 

I speak a word to you, the air in front of my mouth is 
thrown into little waves, like the waves produced in a still 
pond by throwing stones into it. If a fine peeble be thrown 
into the pond, a fine circular ripple will be produced which 
will go widening and widening to the shore. If a handful 
of fine peebles be thrown in, there will be a number of fine 
ripple-circles formed which will chase each other to the 
shore. If large stones be throw T n in, a series of waves will 
be produced. These ripples and waves on the water's sur- 
face show to the eye what happens in the great atmospheric 
ocean that surrounds our earth, whenever we hear a sound. 
This atmospheric ocean, or atmosphere, or, simply, the air, 
as we call it, is thrown into ripples or waves, which flow in 
circles away from the center of disturbance, that is, away 
from the spot where the sound began. Perhaps you under- 
stand now what I meant a moment ago when I said that if 
I should speak a word to you, the air in front of my mouth 
would be thrown into little waves. These waves reach and 
enter your ear. A little way down in the ear there is 
stretched across the passage a thin membrane, something 
like the parchment that drum-heads are made of. It is 
sometimes called the drum of the ear. though its proper 
name is the tympanum. Just inside the tympanum is a 
set of four very small bones, the exact purpose of which we 
do not quite understand ; but a nerve goes off from there 
called the auditory nerve, (or hearing nerve), to the brain, 
just as the optic nerve goes off from the retina of the eye to 
the brain. Now when I speak a word to you, the air in 
front of my lips is thrown into little waves, or vibrations, 
which run off in circles, widening and widening till they 
enter the ear -passage, and striking the tympanum, set it- 
vibrating. The four little bones catch up the vibration, 
and convey it to the auditory nerve, which in turn takes up 



o A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

the story and carries it to the brain. The brain having the 
power of thinking, interprets* the sound and understands 
what is meant. 

In a similar way the organs of smell, of touch, and of 
taste, convey to the brain each its own peculiar impressions ; 
and it is through these five senses, as they are termed, that 
the mind gets all its information about the external world. 
This information comes to the mind in the form of nerve- * 
impressions, and these nerve-impressions are what we mean 
by mental pictures, or ideas. 



" Ideas" are mental pictures, or impressions on the 
brain, conveyed through one of the five senses. -j- 



LESSON V. 
Moke about Mental Pictures, or Ideas. 
[ To be read in class ] 

As letters represent sounds of the voice, so words repre- 
sent ideas, or mental impressions. If I show you a peach, 
your eye at once catches the image of it, the optic nerve 
conveys to the brain an exact impression of what is imaged 
on the retina, and the mind at once understands 

peach. 

If, instead of showing you the fruit, I speak the word 
" peach" in your hearing, your ear at once catches the 
sound, the auditory nerve conveys to the brain an exact im- 
pression of what it heard at the little chime of the ear-bells, % 
(which God has hung for the ears exclusive use just back of 
the tympanum), and the mind at once, as before, under- 
stands 

peach. 

* " Interpret" means to explain, to translate. 

-j- The pupil should commit this statement to memory. 

J Those four little bones of the ear spoken of in the preceding chapter. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. V 

If, instead of showing you the peach, or speaking the 
word, I have you close your eyes and let you smell it, at 
once the nerve of smell conveys to the brain its peculiar 
impression, and at once the mind understands again 

peach. 

If, instead of either of these ways, I have you shut your 
eyes, and cut off the sense of smell, and then let you taste 
the fruit, at once the taste-nerve informs the brain of it, 
.and the mind, as clearly as before, understands 

peach. 

If, finally, all other avenues of impression be cut off, and 
I let you feel it, at once the feeling-nerve acquaints the 
brain with its special impressions, and at once the mind, 
just as in all the other instances, understands 

peach. 

The word "peach" then, represents a mental impress- 
ion, or idea, which the mind may have got in any one of 
five different ways. But it is not every object that the 
brain can get an impression of through all five of the senses. 
Many things can go by one channel only ; as, for example, 
color, which can only go by the eye.* But, however ob- 
tained, the mental impression, or idea, is represented in 
language by a ivord. So we say, 

§W A " word" represents an idea.\ 



* A person may have all his senses perfect except sight, but none of them 
will do to convey to his brain the impression of a blue, a red, or any color. 
If he has never had sight, he cannot have any idea of color. He could not 
understand it, if it were explained to him. He may by feeling be able to say, 
this is blue; or, this is red 5 showing that he feels a certain roughness, or 
smoothness, or softness, which belongs to a red or a blue article ; but he can 
have no idea of color unless he has seen it, any more than an animal, not hav- 
ing a conscience, can have an idea of right and wrong. 

•f The pupil should commit this statement to memory. 



10 A l'RIMElt OF LANGUAGE. 

LESSON VI. 
Syllables. 
[To be read in class.] 

Horse; Horseman, 

The word " horse" is made up of several letters whose 
sounds blend* together so that it is pronounced with one 
impulse of the voice. Not so the word " horseman." In 
the pronunciation of this word, there are two separate sets 
of sounds — one set producing the word " horse," and the 
other the word " man." Two impulses of the voice are 
requisitef to call the word. A set of sounds with but one 
vocal impulse is called a " syllable." A word of one syl- 
lable is called a " monosyllable," as, horse, dog, pig, boy, 

girl 

In pronouncing the words " a-corn," " i-dol," " o-cean," 

there is first a single vowel-sound, and then a set of sounds. 

The parts into which a great many words are divided are 

called syllables, which may be thus defined : 

jS?" k " syllable" is one or more letters of a word pronounced 
with one impulse of the voiee.% 

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; a word 
of two syllables, a dissyllable 5 a word of three syllables, a 
trisyllable 5 a word of four or more syllables, a poly- 
syllable. 



* " Blend " means to mingle, to mix, 
j- " Requisite" means necessary* 

J All statements following an index (dSP^"") are to be committed to mem- 
ory. To this end, the pupil should copy them repeatedly j the length of each 
written exercise has been fixed on the supposition that they will be copied 
three times. 



A PKIMEK OF LANGUAGE. 



11 



Written Exercise. 
Write ten monosyllables, as, 

boy, my, here. 

Suggestion*: If you cannot think of enough monosyllables, look 
in your Header for them. 

Write ten dissyllables, as, 

wo man, ba ker, mu sic. 

Write ten trisyllables as, 

beau ti fill, po lite ness, dis ci pline. 

Write ten polysyllables, as, 

al to geth er, dec la ma tion, im de sir a bil i ty. 

Classifyf the following according to the number of syl- 
lables they have : there are twelve of each kind. Divide 
the syllables as in the above examples. 



peaches, 


ivy, 


ground, 


apricots, 


imperfection, 


dine, 


deprivation, 


severity, 


dinner, 


bees, 


girl, 


rob, 


town, 


impossibility, 


robber, 


city, 


cottages, 


robbery, 


government, 


sometimes, 


man, 


hunger, 


fishing, 


manful, 


appetite, 


cat, 


unmanful, 


spring, 


cart, 


unmanf ully, 


telescope, 


discipline, 


understanding, 


dreams, 


seasonable, 


grandmother. 


thorough, 


geographically, 


comfortable, 


through, 


sudden, 


uncomfortable. 


incomprehensibility, 


suddenly, 


together, 


icicle, 


eagle, 


gentlemanly. 



Oral E.rereise.X 
Turn to page 1 and name every word in order, according 



* " Suggestion" means a hint. 

j- " Classify" means to arrange in sets. 

J To the teacher : The " oral exercises" are intended to fix the impressions 
made by the other parts of the lesson. The author earnestly advises that they 
be not passed by. They have been so constructed, however, that if they should 
be omitted, the continuity of the book will not be broken. 



12 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE: 

to the number of syllables it contains, giving the reason, as 
follows : 

" If" is a monosyllable, because it requires but one impulse of the 
voice. " I" is a monosyllable for the same reason. %i Communicate" 
is & polysyllable, because it requires four impulses of the voice ; and 
so on as far as the teacher thinks best to proceed. 



LESSON VII. 
Various Sorts of Words. 

[To be read in class.] 

We learned in lesson V. that words represent ideas. As 
there are various sorts of ideas, so there must be various 
sorts of words to represent, or stand for them. First, there 
must be names for the things we see, taste, handle, etc.; as, 

moon, apple, knife. 

These we call nouns. Then there must be words that tell 
what these things do ; as, 

The moon shines. The apple grows. The knife cuts. 

These we call verbs. Next there must be words to describe 
the nouns, or tell what kind they are ; as, 

The bright moon. The ripe apple. The sharp knife. 

These we call adjectives. Next there must be words to 
describe the verbs, or tell hoio they do what they say ; as, 

The moon shines softly. The apple grows slowly. 
The knife cuts deeply. 

These we call adverhs. There are four other kinds of 
words, making eight in all, which are called the eight Parts 
of Speech. But the four above enumerated — nouns, verbs, 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 13 

adjectives and adverbs — make up nearly all the words 
there are in the English language — 100,000 and more. Of 
the other four there are only about 300 altogether. 

The most important of these eight Parts of Speech is the 
noun, because a thing must have a ?iame before Ave can 
talk much about it. The second in importance is the verb. 



LESSON VIII. 

Review : Language. 

[To be studied and recited.'] 

" Language'' is the way we have of communicating our 
thoughts to each other. 
What is language ? 

We may communicate our thoughts in these three ways : 

1. By sign-lailguage 9 such as that which is made by 
the fingers and is used by mutes. 

The language made by the fingers is called what ? 
It is used by whom ? 

2. By written language, or the language of books, news- 
papers, letters, etc., which may be printed, or only written 
with the pen 

What is the language of books, newspapers, letters, etc., called ? 

3. By spoken language, or the language of the lips. 
The language made by the lips is called what ? 

Besides this, we have different languages, as used by dif- 
ferent races; as, the English language, the French language, 
the German language, etc. 

Different races use different languages : mention some ? 



14 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

There are thousands of these different languages, all of 
which are made by putting words together. 

How many of these are there ? 
They are all made how ? 

These words are composed of letters. In the English 
language there are twenty-six of these letters, together 
called the alphabet, and upwards of 100,000 words. 

Words are composed of what ? 

In the English language there are how many letters ? 

These are together called what ? 

About how many words are there in the English language ? 

Letters have two different forms — the common printed 
form, and the written form, or script as it is called. Both 
these are divided into two classes, capitals and small letters. 

What two forms have letters ? 

The written form has a special name : what is it ? 

Both these forms are divided into two classes : wiiat are they ? 



LESSON IX. 

Review Lesson II. 
[To be studied and recited.] 

Questions for Recitation. 

1 . Each letter of the alphabet stands for what ? 

2. What word shows the first sound of a ? 
8. Give the sound. 

4. What word shows the second sound of a ? 

5. Give the sound. 

6. What word shows the third sound of a ? 

7. Give the sound. 

8. What word shows the fourth sound of a ? 

9. Give the sound. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 15 

10. What word gives the fifth sound of a ? 

11. Give the sound. 

12. How many different sounds has a ? 

13. These sounds all come from where ? 

14. And flow how ? 

15. Are all the alphabetic sounds formed as those of a 
are formed ? 

16. What is done to give the sound of p in ape? 

17. The sound of p is nothing but what ? 

18. Does it come up out of the throat at all ? 

19. How many of the letters always stand for sounds that 
are formed somewhat as those of a are formed ? 

20. These five letters are called what ? 

21. Name them. 

22. What two other letters are sometimes vowels ? 

23. What are the other letters called ? 

24. Thus w T e see that the vowels may be called what V 

25. The sounds they represent are how formed ? 

26. To utter b what must w r e do ? 

27. So we say that b represents what ? 

28. Give the rule that tells what sounds the vowels re- 
present. 

29. Give the rule that tells what sounds the consonants 
represent. 



LESSON X. 

Review Lesson III. 

[To be studied and recited like the 'preceding lesson, if the teacher does 
not think it too hard for the class.] 



16 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

LESSON XI. 
Review : Ideas. 
[To be studied and recited.] 

Ideas are mental pictures, or impressions on the brain, 
conveyed through one of the five senses. 

What are ideas ? 

The brain is that part of us where the thinking is done ; 
and it is the business of the eye, the ear, and the other 
senses to supply the brain with pictures or impressions 
which become the material of thought. 

What is the brain ? 

What is the business of the eye, the ear, etc, ? 

Suggestion : Read Lesson IV. again, to remind you how the 
senses perform this office. 

As letters represent, or stand, for sounds of the voice, so 
words represent ideas, or mental impressions. 

Letters represent what ? 
Words represent what ? 

A word represents an idea* 



LESSON XII. 
Review : Syllables. 
[To be studied and read in class.] 

When the various sounds that go to make up a word 
blend together so that the word is pronounced with one 
impulse of the voice, it is said to be a word of one syllable ; 
as, horse. 

When is a word said to be a word of one syllable ? 

When two impulses of the voice are requisite to call the 



A PKIMEK OF LANGUAGE. 17 

word, it is said to be a word of two syllables ; as, horse- 
man. 
. When is a word said to be a word of two syllables ? 

A syllable is one or more letters of a word pronounced 
with one impulse of the voice. 

What is a syllable? 

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable. 
What is a word of one syllable called ? 

A word of tivo syllables is called a dissyllable. 
What is a word of two syllables called ? 

A word of three syllables is called a trisyllable. 
What is a word of three syllables called ? 

A word of four or more syllables is called a polysyllable. 
What is a word of four or more syllables called ? 

Suggestion : Read Lesson VI. again. 



LESSON XIII. 
Review Lesson VII. 
[To be studied and recited] 

Questions for Recitation. 

1. Words represent what ? 

2. As there are various sorts of ideas, so there must be 
what? 

3. First, there must be what ? Give examples. 

4. These are called what ? 

5. Next, there must be what ? Give examples. 

6. These are called what ? 

7. Next, there must be what ? Give examples. 

8. These are called what ? 



18 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

9. Next, there must be what ? Give examples. 

10. These are called what ? 

11. Besides these four, there are how many other kinds 
of words ? 

12. These eight are called what ? 

13. Nearly all the words in the English language belong 
to what four kinds ? 

14. About how many words are there in English ? 

15. About how many words in English belong to the 
other four kinds ? 

16. The most important part of speech is what ? 

17. Why? 

IS. The second in importance is what '( 



LESSON XIV. 
Summary* of Definitions and Principles. 
[I'o be studied and recited.] 
" Summary" means what ? 

i. " Language" is the way we have of communicating 
our thoughts to each other. 
k> Language" is what ? 

2. The " vowels" represent sounds that come up from 
the throat, and flow freely out of the mouth. 

y|The " vowels" represent what? 

3. The u consonants" represent sounds that are stopped, 
or interrupted, or forced out. 

The " consonants" represent what ? 

4. " Ideas" are mental pictures, or impressions on the 
brain, conveyed through one of the five senses. 

" Ideas" are what ? 



* "Summary" means a brief statement of the whole. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE 19 

5. A " word" represents an idea. 
A " word" represents what ? 

6. A " syllable" is one or more letters of a word pronoun- 
ced with one impulse of the voice. 

A " syllable" is what ? 



LESSON XV. 
Written Examination.* 

1. What is language ? 

2. What is the finger- language called, and who use it? 

3. What is the language of books, etc., called? 

4. What is the language of the lips called ? 

5. Mention a few of the different languages used by 
different races. 

6. What is meant by the alphabet ? 

7. How many letters are there in ours ? 

8. What different forms have letters ? 

9. Explain what is meant by " small" letters. 

10. What is a vowel ? 

11. Name the vowels. 

12. Give examples of the different sounds of a. 

18. The letters of the alphabet not voAvels, are called 
what ? 

14. Definef " consonant." 

15. Take the letter d t as heard in bad, and explain how 
it is a consonant. 



*To the teacher : Pupils that fall below 80 per cent, at this or any following 
written examination cannot safely go forward till the deficiency is made good, 
f To " define" a word is to tell what it means. 



20 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE: 

LESSON XVI. 
Written Examination continued. 

1. What are vocals ?* Name them. 

2. What are subvocals ? How many are there ? 

3. What are aspirates ? Name them. 

4. What is a diphthong ? Give four examples. 

5. What is a triphthong ? Give two examples. 

6. What is an idea ? 

7. Explain as fully as you can how an idea reaches the 
mind through the eye. 

8. Explain as fully as you can how an idea reaches the 
mind through the ear. 

9. Name the senses. 

10. Give a full definition of ideas. 

11. Illustrate the use of each of the five senses by the 
word " peach." 

12. Name some ideas which the mind can only get 
through one channel. 

13. What do words represent ? 

1 4. What is a syllable ? 

15. What name is given to a word of one syllable ? of two 
syllables ? of three syllables ? of four or more syllables ? 

16 Give three examples of each. 

17. Why are there different sorts, or classes of words ? 

18. How many classes are there in English ? 

19. What are they called ? 

20. Which is the most important one ? the second ? 

21. What does " summary" mean ? 



* Classes that skipped Lesson II. should skip this and the four next ques- 
tions. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE 21 



CHAPTER II. 

S O M K P A R T S OF SPBBO H. 



LESSON I. 
Names, or Nouns. 
Written Exercise. 

1. Write ten names of objects out-of-doors, as, 

sky, cloud, tree. 

Directions : 1. Punctuate as in the model given below. 2. Avoid 
capitals, except as used in the model. 

2. Write the following general statement three times : 
WW All names are nouns. 

Direction : Whenever you copy from print, underscore words 
that are printed in italics. 

3. Write ten names of objects in-doors, as, 

wall, table, carpet. 

4. Write the following statement three times again : 
J®" All names are nouns. 

Model : 

Language Lesson. 

Oct. 1, 1890.— Mary J. Parson. 
Names, or Nouns. 

1. Names of objects out-of-doors : 

leaf, twig, stem, mountain, snow, brook, ocean, star, 
lion, rock. 



22 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

2. All names are nouns. 
All names are nouns. 
All names are nouns. 

3. Names of objects in-cloors s 

ink, lamp, wick, oil, clock, pitcher, fork, collar, 
stool, piano. 

4. All names are nouns, 
All names are nouns 
All names are nouns. 

Oral Exercise. 

1. Turn to page 50 of your Reader, and call off the name- words, 
or nouns, according to the following model : 

" Carpet" is a noun, because it is the name of a thing. " Zebra" 
is a noun, because it is the name of an animal. " James" is a noun, 
because it is the name of a person. " Newark" is a noun, because it 
is the name of a place. " Danube" is a noun, because it is the name 
of a river ; and so on. 

2. Repeat several times in concert the general statement or rule 
of the lesson, viz. : " All names are nouns." 



CHAPTER II. 

Nouns ; Use of Capitals. 
Written Exercise. 

1 . Write ten names of persons, as, 

Sara 5 Jamie^ Jolmsoih 

Direction : Observe the capitals and punctuation. 

2. Write ten names of places, as, 

America, London, Pennsylvania. 

Caution : Be careful to spell them correctly 

3. Write the following general statement three times : 
2£p~Tlie particular names of persons and places must begin with 

a capital. 

[To the teacher : In place of the oral exercise to-day, it would be well to 
have the reading part of the next lesson read aloud and illustrated with further 
examples suggested by the pupils.] 



A PltlMER OF LANGUAGE. 23 



LESSON III. 
Particular Names of Persons and Places. 
[To be read in class*] 

In the last lesson you were directed to copy this state- 
ment : " The particular names of persons and places must 
begin with a capital." Did you wonder what the word 
" particular" meant? and why it was used ? I will tell you. 
Take a girl's name, Sara, for instance. Now this girl has 
many other names, as, 

girl, person, individual, pupil, 

scholar, being, child, sister, 

schoolmate, companion, daughter, friend, etc, 

All these names belong to her, but not one of them points 
her out from other girls as the name " Sara" does. So we 
call " Sara" her particular name; and it is only the par- 
ticular names of persons and places that must begin w T ith a 
capital. I will tell you more on this subject by and by. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Write five particular names of boys. 

2. Write the following general statement three times : 
(H^FAll names are nouns. 

3. Write five particular names of cities. 
Caution : Be careful to spell them correctly. 

4. Write the following general statement three times : 

Jt^Tlie particular names of persons and places must begin with 
a capital. 

5. Write five particular names of countries, as, 

Japan, India, Brazil, 



* See note on page 1. 



24 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercise. 

1 . Recite from your written exercise after this model : 

11 John" is a noun because it is a name. It must begin with a 
capital because it is the particular name of a person. (And so of 
the other names of boys.) 

2. Repeat the first general statement, (pointed out by the index 
[SIP]), several times in concert. 

3. Recite from your written exercise after this model : 

" ISTew York" is a noun, because it is a name. It must begin with 
a capital because it is the particular name of a city. (And so of 
the other names of cities.) 

4. Repeat the second general statement several times in concert. 

5. Recite from your written exercise after this model : 

" Japan" is a noun because it is a name. It must begin with a 
capital because it is the particular name of a country. (And so of 
the other names of countries ) 



LESSON IV. 

Particular Names of Persons and Places. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Write five particular names of girls. 

2. Write the following general statement three times : 
HT All names are nouns. 

3. Write five particular names of states, as, 

Virginia, Rhotle Island, Kansas. 

Caution : Be careful to spell them correctly. 

4. Write the following general statement three times : 

SSFThe particular names of persons and places must begin with 
a capital. 

5. Write five particular names of rivers, as, 

Amazon, Hudson, Ohio. 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite from your written exercise as in the preceding lesson. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 25 

LESSON V. 

The Noun Defined. 

Written Exercise. } 

1. Name five parts of each of the following objects : 

knife, umbrella, ship, wagon, tree, coat,* 

2. Write the following statement three times : 

[Hereafter this direction will be omitted. The pupil will understand that 
every statement pointed out by an index (H3F*)> is to be copied three times.] 

%W A " noun" is the name of anything*. 

Remark : The marks used before and after the word " noun" are 
called quotation marks. \ Copy them correctly. 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite from your written exercise after this model : 
" Bush" — its parts are root, stem, leaf, bud, flower, etc. These are 
nouns because they are names. (And so of the others.) 
Repeat the rule of the lesson several times in concert. 

LESSON VI. 

The Noun Defined. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Name five parts of each of the following objects : 

table, piano, boy, dog, room, bureau. 

2. aHF" A noun is the name of anything'. 



* Model Exercise ; 

Language Lesson, 

Oct. 8. 1890.— Mark C. Horton. 
The Nonn Defined. 

1. Blisll — its parts are ; root, stem, leaf, bud, flower, etc. 

' Giirden — its parts are : tree, arbor, walk, toad, bird's nest, etc. 
Watch — its parts are; hands, figures, wheels, spring, face, etc. 
Book — its parts are : page, leaf, cover, title-page, pictures, etc. 
Bird — its parts are ; feathers, bill, toes, wings, head, etc. 
Locomotive — its parts are : boiler, cow-catcher, smoke-stack, whistle, 
bell, etc. 

2. A " noun" is the name of anything. 
A " noun 9 ' is the name of anything. 
A "noun" is the name of any tiling. 

fThe use of "quotation marks" is explained in Chapter XII. 



26 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE: 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite from your written exercise as in the preceding lesson. 



LESSON VIL 
The Noun Defined. 
Written Exercise. 

1. Name five kinds of each of the following things 

tree, flower, vine, nut, fruit, candy.* 

2. $W A noun is the name of anything. 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite as in Lesson V. 



LESSON VIII. 

The Noun Defined. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Name five kinds of each of the following things : 
meat, trades, furniture, vegetables, clothing, drink. 

2. '$W A noun is the name of anything. 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite as in Lesson Y. 



.LESSON IX. 

The Noun Defined. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Name five kinds of each of the following things 

wild beasts, birds, fish, pets, playthings, tools. 

2. JSi~A noun is the name of anything. 



* Model : 

1. Tree — there are the following kinds : maple, peach, apple, oak, hickory, 
etc. (And so of the others.) 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 27 

Oral Exercise. 



Recite as in Lesson V. 



LESSON X. 
A Puzzling Subject. 
Written Exercise. 

1. Name a thing that you can learn about only through 
the sight. 

2. Name a thing that you can learn about only through 
the hearing 

3. Name a thing that you can learn about only through 
the taste. 

4. Name a thing that you can learn about only through 
the smell. 

5. Name a thing that you can learn about only through 
the feeling, 

6. Name ten things that you cannot see, hear, taste, 
smell, nor feel, but can think about. 

7. £3P~ A noun is the name of anything-. 

Oral Exercise. 

Two pupils go to the blackboard. One of them writes this 
heading :* 

Tilings that we can learn about only through the sight. 
The other pupil writes the following : 

Tilings that w£ can learn about only through the h earing. 

The class then read their answers to number 1, which the pupil at 
the first board makes a complete list of (not repeating) When that 
is done, the class pass judgment on the list, giving reasons. Wrong 
answers are erased, the teacher suggests additions, and the revised 
list is repeated in concert. The board is then cleared and another 
pupil called up, who writes the third heading as follows : 



* To the teacher ; Allow no slipshod work to be put on your blackboards. 



28 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Things that we can learn about only through the taste. 

While this is in progress, the class read their answers to number 
2, which the second pupil at the board, (having the second heading 
in readiness), makes a list of, and the work proceeds as before. Go 
over the whole lesson in this way. 



LESSON XL 

The Akticle. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Write ten such expressions as 

the boy, the lion* 

2. Write ten such expressions as 

an ox ? an owl* 

3. Write ten such expressions as 

a cat, a dog. 
4 jgp~ The words " the/' " an," and " a " are articles. 

We shall see by and by that "an" and "a" are different 
forms of the same word, and that there are in reality only 
two articles, viz. : "the" and "an" or "a." 

The articles are not a separate part of speech, but are a kind 
of adjective. 

5. %^f The " articles" are a hind of adjective. 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite from your written exercise after these models : 

1. The boy : " the" is an article. An " article" is a kind of ad- 
jective. 

2. An ox : " an" is an article. An " article" is a kind of adjective. 

3. A cat : " a" is an article. An "article" is a kind of adjective. 
Repeat the general statement of the lesson several times in con- 
cert, viz. : 

The articles are a kind of adjective. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 29 

LESSON XII. 
The Adjective. 
Written Exercise. 

1. Write twenty such expressions as 

dry toast, warm weather, toad boys. 

2. 1®^ The words "dry," "warm," "bad," etc., are 
adjectives. 

Oral Exercise. 

One pupil writes on the blackboard the word Adjectives as a 
heading, and under it a list of the expressions which the pupils in 
turn read from their written exercises, till the board is filled. The 
adjectives are underscored. The class then pass judgment on the 
list. Wrong answers are erased, and the revised list is repeated in 
concert. 

LESSON XIII. 

The Adjective Partly Defined. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Describe each of the following nouns by the use of 
three different adjectives.* (Do not repeat.) 

eagles, hawks, houses, shoes, babies, trees, fences, skates. 

2. §^° Most adjectives describe nouns. 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite from your written exercise after this model : 
"Old, grey, watchful eagles." "Old," "grey," and " watchful'' 
are adjectives, because the}* describe the noun " eagles." 
Repeat the rule of the lesson several times in concert. 



* Model; 

old ) strong 

grey \ eagles. savage [-hawks. 

watchful J hungry 



30 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



LESSON XIV. 

The Adjective Partly Defined, 

Written Exercise. 

1. Describe each of the following nouns by filling the 

blanks with appropriate adjectives; as fierce tigers. 

tigers. roses, lions. shells. 

ponies. — - — horses, shoes. eyes. 

faces. chickens. coffee. streets. 

candy. apples. ships. stores. 

2. fl3P" Most adjectives describe nouns. 

Oral Exercise. 

Recite from your written exercise after this model : 
" Fierce tigers," " Fierce " is an adjective because it describes the 
noun " tigers." 

Repeat the rule of the lesson several times in concert. 



LESSON XV. 

The Adjective Partly Defined: 

Written Exercise. 

1. Place a descriptive* adjective before each of the fol- 
lowing nouns : 

pens, ink, fish, clothes, books, 

flowers, bread, water, parents, weather. 

2. Compose ten other similar examples. 

3. %W Most adjectives describe uonns. 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite from your written exercise after this model : 
'• New pens." " New" is a descriptive adjective, because it describes 
the noun " pens." 



A " descriptive" adjective is one that describes a noun. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE 31 

Repeat the following statement several times in concert : 

A 6 tf descriptiye " adjective is one that describes a noun. 



LESSON XVI. 

The Verb. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Add three words to each of the following names of 
animals, telling what they do : 

monkeys, birds, cats, dogs, wasps, 

horses, frogs, lambs, kittens, ants. 

Caution : Do not repeat ; observe the capitals and punctuation 
of the model. 

Model : 

1. Monkeys chatter, steal and climb. 

2. Birds sing, fly and hop, (And so on.) 

2. 1®" The words " chatter/' u steal," "climb," etc, are 
verbs. 

Oral Exercise. 

One pupil writes on the board the word Terhs as a heading, 
and under it a list of the words which the class call off from their 
written exercises, telling what monkeys do. The class then pass 
judgment on the list, wrong answers are erased, and the revised list 
is repeated in concert. 

Another pupil doas the same for birds, and so on. 



LESSON XVII. 

The Verb Partly Defined. 

Written Exercise, 

1. Write a verb after each of the following nouns, 

telling or declaring something appropriate, or proper, 

about them, as 



Jane sews. 



32 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Directions : 1. Observe the capitals and punctuation. 2. Sup- 
pose a scholar should fill up the blanks thus : Mary swings. John 
swings. This would not be satisfactory ; do not repeat. 

Mary John Trees 

Knives Fire Water 

2. .§^T A " verb" generally declares something about a noun. 

3. Write a noun before each of the following verbs so as 
to make sense, thus: Roses bloom. (Begin each state- 
ment with a capital and end it with a period.) 

bloom. grow. walk. 

run. — chirp. — — fly. 

Oval Exercise. 

Recite from your written exercise after these models : 

1. " Jane sews." " Sews 5 ' is a verb, because it declares something 
about the noun " Jane." 

2. " Roses bloom." " Bloom" is a verb, because it declares some- 
thing about the noun ' k roses." 

Repeat the rule of the lesson several times in concert. 



LESSON XVIII. 

The Verb Partly Defined. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Write a noun before each of the following verbs, so as 
to make sense. (Do not repeat. Begin each statement 
with a capital and end it with a period). 

squeal, hum. crawl. leap, 

dance. shine. climb. burns, 

2. Add a suitable verb to each of the following nouns, 

declaring something about them. 

Balloons . Kites . Tops . Brooks , 

Snow . Indians . Rats . Mice . 

3. jgpA " verb" generally declares something about a noun. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 33 

Oral Exercise. 

Recite as in the preceding lesson. 

LESSON XIX. 

The Verb Partly Defined. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Compose ten statements each consisting of a noun 
and a verb, and draw one line under every noun and two 
lines under every verb, thus : 

Stars twinkle. Charles paints. Ice melts. 

Caution : Do not repeat. 

2. XW A verb generally declares something' ahout a noun. 

Oral Exercise. 

Recite from your written exercise after this model : 

" Stars twinkle," " Stars" is a noun, because it is a name. 

"Twinkle" is a verb, because it declares something about the noun 

" stars." 

Repeat the rule of the lesson several times in concert. 



LESSON XX. 

Review : Names are Nouns. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Write ten names of familiar objects, as house, chair. 

2. StirAU names are nouns. 

3. Write five particular names of persons, five of coun- 
tries, five of states, five of cities, and five of rivers. 

4. &T The particular names of persons and places must begin 
with a capital. 



34 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite from your written exercise after these models : 

1. " House " is a noun because it is a name. 

2. " Jennie 1 ' is a noun because it is a name. It must begin with a 
capital because it is the particular name of a person. 

Repeat the two rules of the lesson several times in concert. 

LESSON XXL 

Review : The Noun Defined ; the Articles. 
Written Exercise. 

1. Name five parts of each of the following objects : 

wagon, tree, table. ■ 

2. Name five things that you can learn about through 
only one of the senses. 

3. Name five things that you can think about, though 
you can not learn about them through any of the senses. 

4. ^W A " noun 55 is the name of anything". 

5. Write ten expressions each consisting of an article 
and a noun, as, the sun, a week, an orange. 

6. $W There are two articles, the and an, or a. They are a 
kind of adjective. 

Oral Exercise. 

1. Six of the class go to the boards, and each writes a different 
one of the following headings : 1. Parts of a wagon. 2. Parts of 
a tree, 3. Parts of a table. 4. Things you can learn about through 
only one of the senses. 5. Things you can think about, though 
you cannot learn about them through any of the senses. 6. Express- 
ions consisting of an article and a noun. 

Then each makes a proper list, (not repeating), of the things the 
children have thought of in their written exercises. The class pass 
judgment on the lists, wrong answers are erased, the teacher sug- 
gests additions, and the class repeat the whole in concert. 

2 Repeat several times in concert the two rules pointed out by 
the index (BBS"). 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 35 

LESSON XXII. 

Review : The Adjective. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Describe the following nouns by writing an adjective 
before each one, thus : 

Green corn, hot cakes. ragged clothes. 

Direction : Underscore the adjectives, as in the above examples, 

corn, cakes, clothes, weather, books, 

dishes, houses, beds, shoes, pens, 

stars, leaves, chairs, slippers, stockings, 

2. [ IW Most " adjectives" describe nouns, 

3. Compose ten expressions, each consisting of an article, 
an adjective and a noun, as a hard sura, the right ansiver, 
an ugly blot. 

Oral Exercise. 
Models for Recitation ; 

1. " Green corn." "Green" is an adjective because it describes 
the noun " corn," " Corn " is a noun, because it is a name. 

2. " Hot cakes." " Hot " is an adjective because it describes the 
noun " cakes." " Cakes" is a noun, because it is a name. 

Repeat the rule several times in concert. 

3. " A hard sum." "A" is an article: there are two articles, 
the and an, or a. " Hard " is an adjective, because it describes the 
noun " sum." " Sum " is a noun, because it is a name. 

LESSON XXIII. 
Review : The Verb. 
Written Exercise. 

1. Declare something about the following nouns by adding 
a verb to each : 

Torpedoes . Hogs . Rain . 



Children . Locomotives . Gunpowder 



36 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

2. Jt^~ A verb generally declares something about a noun, 

3. Compose five statements, each consisting of an article, 
a noun and a verb, as, The sun shines. A gun exploded. An 
apple dropped. 

Oral Exercise. 
Models for Recitation : 

1. " Torpedoes explode." " Torpedoes " is a noun, because it is 
a name. "Explode " is a verb, because it declares something about 
the noun " torpedoes." 

Repeat the rule of the lesson. 

2. " The sun shines." " The " is an article ; there are two articles, 
the and an, or a. " Sun " is a noun, because it is a name. " Shines " 
is a verb, because it declares something about the noun " Sun." 



LESSON XXIV. 

Summary* of Rules, Definitions and Principles, 

[To be studied and recited.] 
" Summary " means what ? 

1. All names are nouns. 
All names are what ? 

2. The particular names of persons and places must 
begin with a capital. 

Give rule for particular names. 

3. A noun is the name of anything. 
A noun is what ? 

4. There are two articles, the and an, or a. They are a 
kind of adjective. 

Name the articles. Tbey are a kind of what ? 

5. Most adjectives describe nouns. 
Most adjectives do what ? 

6. Most verbs declare something about nouns. 
Most verbs do what ? 



* Sec note on page 18. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 37 

LESSON XXV. 
Written Examination. 

1. All names are called what ? Give three examples. 

2. Give rule for writing the particular names of persons 
and places. Give three examples of particular names. 

3. Why do we use the word " particular " in this rule ? 

4. Define a noun. Give three examples. 

5. Name the articles. They are a kind of what? 

6. Most adjectives do what ? Give three examples. 

7. Most verbs do what ? Give three examples. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE SENTENCE. 



LESSON I. 
Statements. 

[To be read in class*] 

Take the name "John." Suppose I were to tell you 
something about him — that he is asleep — that he is sick — 
that he goes to school — that he likes candy, thus : 

John is asleep, John is sick. 

John goes to school. John likes candy. 

All these four expressions make sense. They all inform 
you of something. They all declare or state something 



* See note on page 1. 



38 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

about John, and are called statements. They have another 
name, too, sentences. 

If I should say u John," simply, and stop there, you 
would wait to hear what I was going to say about him. I 
should not give you any information by that expreision. I 
should not state anything. The word is not a state??ient, not 
a sentence. 

In the same way, if I should say " is asleep," you would 
naturally ask, " Who is asleep ? " The expression " is 
asleep" is not enough to give you any information. It 
might be John that " is asleep," or the cat, or the baby. 
This expression, then, is also insufficient. It does not state 
anything, and is therefore not a statement^ or sentence. 

Thus we see that to make a statement, it is necessary to 
have these two parts : 

First, We must have, to begin with, the name of some- 
body, or something, or some place ; which name is very 
properly called the subject of the remark we are going to 
make. 

And Secondly, something must be said about that sub- 
ject. These two parts are necessary to every statement, or 
sentence. 

[Commit the following to memory :] 
A '* statement" is a remark consisting of two parts. 



LESSON II. 

Statements, 

Written Exercise* 

1. Compose six statements like these : — Stars twinkle. 
Rivers flow. Smoke rises. (Observe the capitals and 
periods.) 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE 39 

2. I® ' Such " statements " as stars twinkle, rivers flow, 
smoke rises, are sentences. 

3. Make statements, or " sentences," by writing a suit- 
able word in each of the following blanks. 

Cork . Lead . tick. ring. 

Leaves . Ice — — - ripen, decay. 

4. £®~ Every " sentence " must begin with a capital. 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite from your written exercise after these models : 

1. Stars twinkle. This is a statement, or sentence. It begins 
with a capital, and ends with a period. 

2. Cork floats. This is a statement, or sentence. It begins with 
a capital and ends with a period. 

Repeat the following rule several times in concert : 

Every sentence must begin with a capital. 



LESSON III. 

A Verb in Every Sentence, 

Written Exercise. 

1. Make sentences by inserting a suitable word in each 
of the following blanks. (Observe that in every sentence 
one of the words is a verb. Underscore the verbs.) 

Grass , Farmers . Frogs . Birds . 

speak. laugh. neigh. bellow. 

Pigs . Ducks . Boys . Girls , 

2. DSP" Every sentence must contain a verb. 

Oral Exercise. 

Model for Recitation : 

Grass grows. This is a sentence. " Grass " is a noun, and 
" growls " is a verb. 

Repeat the rule of the lesson several times in concert. 



40 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

LESSON IV. 

The Sentence Explained. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Make sentences by inserting a suitable word in each 
of the following blanks. (Observe that each pair of words 
makes sense, and expresses a thought. Underscore the 
nouns.) 

bloom. melts. float. dance. 

Serpents . Musquitoes Horses . Dogs . 

fret. fell. sail. eat. 

2 2®" When words are put together so as to express a 
thought completely, the whole is called a sentence. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

Flowers bloom. These words express a thought completely, and 
are therefore a sentence. 

Repeat the rule of the lesson several times in concert. 



LESSON V. 

The Sentence Briefly Defined. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Make sense of the following, thus building up sen- 
tences, and expressing thoughts. (Underscore the verbs.) 

Charles Mary . Canaries Baby . 

reads. cackle. hops. sleeps 

2. ^W A sentence" is a thought put into words. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 
Charles runs. These words make sense, and are therefore a 

sentence. 

Repeat the rule of the lesson several times in concert. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 41 

LESSON VI. 

Building Sentences. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Biiild up sentences by making sense of the following. 
(Underscore the nouns. Avoid repetition.) : 

Stars . . Lamps . . 

Rain . . Ships . • . 

2. $W Every sentence makes sense. 

3. Complete the following : 

boils. scratch. . 

4. ggF 1 1 sentence is a thought put into words. 

Oral Exercise. 

Model as in the preceding lesson. 
Repeat both rules in concert. 

LESSON VII. 

The Phrase. 
[To be read in class.] 

Suppose I w T ere to say to you all of a sudden, " in the 
house." You would stare at me and wonder what I meant. 
The words " in the house " do not make a statement ; they 
do not make sense. So far as they go, they are rightly 
put together, but they are not sufficient to make a sentence. 
They are a part of a sentence. We call them a phrase. 

Exercise. 
[Copy the following three times, and repeat it in concert,] 

Words rightly put together, but not making sense, are 
called a phrase. 



42 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



LESSON VIII. 

A Test-Lesson. 
Written Exercise. 

Ten of the following expressions are sentences, ten are 
phrases, and ten, not making sense, and not being rightly- 
put together, are neither sentences, nor phrases. Copy the 
sentences in one column, and the phrases in another. 



Fell heavily. 
It rains. 

John money eat. 
Speak the truth. 
Ship was wrecked. 
Falling leaves. 
Iron silver. 
Made hats. 
John likes candy. 
Mary grass. 
Horses eat oats. 
Charles sick. 
Covered with snow. 
Barn under. 
Dog a have I, 



Pussy scratched the baby. 

Can swim well. 

His on back. 

There was frost. 

Wheat brown. 

Ripe apples. 

Under the tree. 

Table the on. 

Mary stands erect. 

Stand erect. 

Never tell lies, 

Jennie never tells lies. 

A truthful child. 

Eating chestnuts. 

This read you can. 



Oral Exercise. 
Models : 

1. Fell heavily. These words do not make sense, and are there- 
fore not a sentence ; but they are rightly put together, and are there- 
fore a phrase, 

2. It rains. These words make sense, and are therefore a 
sentence. 

3. John money eat. These words do not make sense, and are 
therefore not a sentence. They are not rightly put together, and are 
therefore not a phrase. 



A PKIMEK OF LANGUAGE. 43 

LESSON IX. 

The Declarative Sentence. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Complete the following by inserting one word in each 
blank. (Observe that each sentence states, or declares 
something- Do not repeat) : 

laugh. Roosters . — — , 

. giggle. . Snakes . 

2. $W A sentence that declares something* is called a de- 
clarative sentence. 

3. Complete the following declarative sentences. (Be 
careful to end each with a period.) 

chat. . Leopards . 

4. $y Every "declarative" sentence must end with a 
period. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

Children laugh. This sentence declares something, and is there- 
fore a declarative sentence. 

Repeat the two rules of the lesson in concert. 

LESSON X. 

The Interrogative Sentence. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Complete the following questions, or interrogations, by 
inserting a word in each blank. (Notice the question- 
mark, or interrogation-mark, as it is called, at the end of 
each sentence.) 

Are you ? Will she ? Can he ? 

May I ? Is Mary -? Who is ? 



44 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

[To be read in class. \ 

Do you think the above questions, (after you have filled 
the blanks), are sentences ? Do they make sense ? Do they 
express thoughts ? If they do, then they are sentences, 
according to the definition. (See Lessons IV., v., vi., pages 
40 and 41). All the sentences you have written in previous 
lessons are statements. They declare something, and hence 
are called what ? (If you forget, refer back to Lesson ix). 
But these six sentences of the present lesson are all 
questions. Hence we might call them question sentences. 
Instead of that, we call them interrogative sentences, which 
means the same thing. 

2. 8^~ A sentence that asks a question, or "interrogation/* 
is called an interrogative sentence. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

Are you sick 2 This sentence is a question, or interrogation. It 
is therefore an interrogative sentence. 

Repeat the rule in concert. 



LESSON XL 

The Interrogative Sentence. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Complete the following interrogative sentences with 
one word. (Notice the interrogation- marks. Do not re- 
peat.) 

Shall Mary — -? Do you ? Will bite ? 

Is white ? Who loves ? What is ? 

Does John — - ? Do birds ? Are good ? 

May ride ? Can bark ? Where is ? 

Compose four more like the above. 

2. WW Every interrogative sentence must end with an in- 
terrogation - mark. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 45 

Oral Exercise. 

Model : 

Shall Mary sweep 2 This is an interrogative sentence. It ends 
with an interrogation-mark. 

Repeat the rule in concert. 



LESSON XII. 

The Imperative Sentence. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Compose five sentences in the form of a command, or 
entreaty, advising or requesting that something be done, as, 

Wake up, little boy. Come here, my son. 
Go to sleep, baby. Give us 5 this day, our daily bread. 
(Observe the commas. Observe the periods.) 

2. %W A sentence that advises or requests, in the form of a 
command or entreaty, is called an imperative* sentence. 
It must end with a period. 

3. Change the following declarative sentences into im- 
perative sentences, thus : 

Mary sings for papa, (declarative). 
Mary, sing for papa, (imperative). 
(Observe the comma in the second of the above sentences.) 
Declarative Sentences : 

Mary sings for papa. Peter waters the horse." Rover 
brings back the ball. George makes haste. Mother wakes 
me early. Children obey their parents. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

Mary sings for papa. This is a declarative sentence, because it 
declares something. 

Mary, sing for papa. This is an imperative sentence, because it 
requests, in the form of a command, that something be done. 

Repeat the rule in concert. 



; Imperative " means commanding. 



46 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

LESSON XIII. 

The Exclamative Sentence. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Compose five sentences, exclaiming something, as, 

What a noise you make ! 
How beautiful is morning ! 

(Observe the mark, called the exclamation-mark, at the 
end of the sentences.) 

2. 23F A sentence that is. an " exclamation" is called an esc- 
clamative sentence. It must end with an exclamation point ( ! ). 

3. Convert the following declarative sentences into ex- 
clamative sentences, thus : 

Baby sleeps sweetly, (declarative.) 
How sweetly baby sleeps! (exclamative.) 

Declarative Sentences ; 

The moon shines brightly. Father is kind. 

The garden is delightful. The Lord will bless you. 

You will be happy. k The frogs croak loudly. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model ; 

Baby sleeps sweetly. This sentence is declarative, because it 

declares something. 

How sweetly baby sleeps ! This sentence is exclamative, because 
it is an exclamation. 

Repeat the rule in concert. 

LESSON XIV. 
A Test-Lesson, 
Written Exercise. 
Select from the following list five declarative, five inter- 



A PlilMER OF LANGUAGE. 



47 



rogative, five imperative, and five exclamative sentences, 
and group them together properly, according to the mo- 
del.* 

Miscellaneous Sentences. 
Many vessels are wrecked at sea. My health is excellent. 



Lord, give me a kind and thank- 
ful heart. 
Are you sick ? 
How bright Emma looks ! 
Enjoy the present. 
Brush your hair. 
Get ready for dinner. 
What noisy children you are ! 
Write legibly. 
Do you speak French ? 
Walk fast, 

Lincoln was a devoted patriot. 
Do you rise early ? 
Eat slowly. 
Stop thief! 
Please write often. 
Run into the house. 
How warm the water feels ! 



The grizzly killed the hunter. 

Bread is the staff of life. 

What a grand life was Wash- 
ington's ! 

How do you do ? 

Give me your hand. 

You are late. 

O, for a lodge in some vast 
wilderness ! 

Give me a pound of coffee, please. 

Make hay while the sun shines. 

What a delightful day it is ! 

How tall is he ? 

How tall he is ! 

Fly away, little birds. 

Help yourself. 

Tell Charley to come home. 

Charley came home. 



Oral Exercise. 
Model ; 

Many vessels are. wrecked at sea. This is a declarative sentence, 

because it declares something. It ends with a period. 



* Model Exercise : 

Language Lesson. 

Nov. 15, 1890. — Mary Somerville. 
The Different Kinds of Sentences, 
Declarative, 

I am hungry. 

Charles is my cousin. 

My horse is lame. 

Cotton grows in v/arm climates. 

President Garfield was assassinated. 

Interrogative. 

Are you thirsty ? 

When was Washington born ? (And so on.) 



48 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Lord, give me a kind and thankful heart. This is an imperative 
sentence, because it requests, in the form of an entreaty, that some- 
thing be done. It ends with a period. 

Are you sick % This is an interrogative sentence, because it is a 
question. It ends with an interrogation- mark. 

How bright Emma looks ! This is an exclamative sentence, be- 
cause it is an exclamation. It ends with an exclamation-mark. 

Enjoy the present. This is an imperative sentence, because it 
advises, in the form of a command, that something be done. It ends 
with a period. 



LESSON XV. 

Subject and Predicate. 
[To be read in class. .] 

Have you noticed that, in the many little sentences you 
have written thus far, there were always two parts ? There 
was first, a thing mentioned to begin with, that is, a sub- 
ject; and secondly, something was said about that subject. 
There . must be these two parts in every sentence. Take 
the sentence, 

Brooks flow. 
Observe, first, that something is mentioned to begin with, 
a subject, viz., " brooks," and then something is said about 
this subject, viz., "flows." Again, take this : 

Three beautiful brooks flow through my father's farm. 

Here we have, as before, first, something mentioned to 
begin with, a subject, viz., " three beautiful brooks," and 
then we have, secondly, something said about them, viz., 
" flow through my father's farm." Now turn the sentence 
a little, thus : 

Through my father's farm three beautiful brooks flow. 
What is the subject now ? " Three beautiful brooks," the 
same as before ; for the sense is just the same. Though 
these three words do not stand first in the sentence, yet 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 49 

they stood first in the mind of the person that composed the 
sentence, and are therefore the leading words of the sentence, 
or the subject, out of which all the rest grows. 

The second part of the sentence, or the part that tells 
something about the subject, has a hard name — it is called 
the predicate* In the sentence Brooks floio, " flow " is 
the predicate ; it tells something about the subject, "brooks." 
In the sentence, Three .beautiful brooks flow through my 
father's farm, the words, "flow through my father's farm," 
are the predicate ; they are the part of the sentence that 
tells something about the subject, "three beautiful brooks." 

Subject and predicate, then, are the two parts of every 
sentence ; and whether the sentence be lengthy or short, 
every word in it belongs to one or other of these two parts. 



LESSON XVI. 

Subject and Predicate. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Compose five sentences, each consisting of an adjec- 
tive, a noun, a verb and another noun, and draw a vertical f 
line between the subject and the predicate, thus : 

Pet dogs | eat candy. 

Hungry wolves | chase travellers. 

2. 2HF Every sentence is made up of two parts, subject and 
predicate. 

Oral 'Exercise. 
Model ; 

Pet dog's eat candy. This sentence consists of an adjective, 
" pet," a noun, " dogs," a verb, " eat," and a noun, " candy." The 
subject is "pet dogs," and the predicate is " eat candy." 

Repeat the rule in concert. 



* That is, the asserting, or declaring word, from the Latin predico, I assert, 
or declare. 

f " Vertical" means straight up and doivn. 



50 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



LESSON XVII. 

The Subject Defined. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Write a suitable subject before each of the following 
verbs : 

creeps. sweep. scrub. cooks, 

2. HF" The "subject" of a sentence is the part mentioned 
to begin ivith. 

3. Write a suitable subject before each of the following 
verbs : 

soar, sail. floats. fly. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

Baby creeps. In this sentence the subject, or the part mentioned 
to begin with, is " baby." 

Repeat the definition of the lesson in concert. 



LESSON XVIII. 

The Subject Defined. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Write a suitable subject before each of the following 
verbs ; the latter will then tell something about the former. 

., — canter. kick rattle. roll. 

2. %W The subject of a sentence is the part mentioned 
to begin tvith. 

3. Write a suitable subject before each of the following 
verbs ; the latter will then tell something about the former. 

shout. halloo. dart. flashes. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

Ponies canter. In this sentence " ponies " is a noun, and " canter" 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 51 

is a verb. " Ponies'' is the subject, or the part mentioned to begin 
with; "canter" is the predicate, or the part that tells something 
about the subject. 

Repeat the definition in concert. 



LESSON XIX. 

The Predicate Defined 

Written Exercise. 

1. Tell something about each of the following subjects by 
adding a suitable predicate — (a verb) : 

Pens . Pins . Razors . Bells . 

2. $W The predicate of a sentence is the part that tells 
something about the subject. 

3. Tell something about each of the following subjects by 
adding a suitable predicate — (a verb) ; (do not repeat) : 
Father . Grandfather . Mother . Grandmother . 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

Pens write. In this sentence, " pens " is a noun, and " write " is 
a verb. " Pens " is the subject, or the part mentioned to begin 
with ; " write " is the predicate, or the part that tells something 
about the subject, 

Repeat the definition in concert. 



LESSON XX. 

The Predicate a Verb. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Add a suitable predicate to each of the following sub- 
jects. Observe that the predicate (if it consist of only one 
word), is always a verb. 

Boats . Balloons . Wheels . Tops 



52 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

2. fi2T w TVlien the predicate consists of only one word, that 
word is always a verb. 

3. Add verbs, or predicates, to the following subjects : 
Buffaloes . Silver . Wild cats . Whalebone . 

Oral Exercise. 
Model as in the preceding lesson. 
Repeat the rule in concert. 



LESSON XXL 

Subject and Predicate Defined. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Fill each of the following blanks with a suitable sub- 
ject, or predicate — (underscore the subjects) : 

glide. Gold . ascends. Icicles . 

2. B3T The subject of a sentence is the part mentioned to 
begin with, 

3. $W The predicate of a sentence is the part that tells some- 
thing about the subject. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model as in Lesson xix. 
Repeat the definitions in concert. 

LESSON XXII. 
Subject and Predicate Defined. 
: Written Exercise. 

1. Fill the following blanks with suitable nouns and 
verbs for subjects and predicates — (underscore the pre- 
dicates) : 

Spiders . Toads . sting. croak. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 53 

2. ZW The subject of a sentence is the part mentioned to 
begin with. 

3. IBP" The predicate of a sentence is the part that tells some- 
thing- about the subject. 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite as in the preceding lesson. 

LESSON XXIII. 
The Bare Sentence ; Subject. 
[To be read in class.] 

h Mamma's darling little baby | sleeps sweetly in 
its cradle. 

2. Little baby | sleeps sweetly. 

3. Baby | sleeps. 

Each of the above examples is a sentence ; there is one 
statement in each and only one — one subject and one 
predicate. In the first example the statement is fuller than 
it is in the second ; and in the second it is fuller than it is 
in the third. In the first the subject consists of four words, 

Mamma's darling little baby, 
and the predicate consists of five words, 

Sleeps sweetly in its cradle. 
Now take the subject, 

Mamma's darling little baby, 
and strip off the first word, " Mamma's "; there is left, 

Darling little baby. 
This omission does not destroy the sentence, for what is 
left makes sense when used along with the predicate, thus : 

Darling little baby sleeps sweetly in its cradle. 
It is not now so full a statement as it was before, but it is 
a perfect statement, and is therefore a sentence. Again, 



54 A PRIMER OP LANGUAGE. 

strip off the second word of the subject, " darling ;" there is 
left, 

Little baby. 
This is enough to keep the sentence unbroken, for, 

Little baby sleeps sweetly in its cradle, 
makes sense, and is therefore a perfect sentence, though it 
is not so full as before. Again, strip off the third word of 
the subject, " little," and there is left, 

Baby. 
Even this is enough to keep the sentence whole, for, 

Baby sleeps sweetly in its cradle, 
makes perfect sense, and is therefore a sentence ; but the 
original subject, 

Mammals darling little baby, 
has been strip hire in the operation, and the word that is 
left, " baby," we call the bare subject. 

Let us now treat the predicate, 
Sleeps sweetly in its cradle, 

in the same way. First strip off the word that stands next 
to " sleep,'' viz., " sweetly ;" there is left, 

Sleeps in its cradle. 
This is not so full as the predicate was before, but when 
taken along with the bare subject " baby," it is enough to 
make a perfect sentence, thus, 

Baby sleeps in its cradle. 
Again, strip off from the predicate, the last three words, 
iQ in its cradle," (which have to be taken together), and 
there is left, 

Sleeps. 
This is enough to make sense when taken along with the 
bare "subject, " baby," thus, 

Baby sleeps. 
But the original predicate, 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 55 

Sleeps sweetly in its cradle, 

has been strip, bare in the operation, and the word that is 
left, " sleeps," we call the bare predicate. The little stript 
sentence, 

Baby sleeps, 
is a very different sentence from the one we began with, viz., 

Mamma's darling little baby sleeps sweetly in its 
cradle, 
but it is just as truly a sentence ; for it makes sense, it ex- 
presses a thought, it contains a subject and a predicate. 

If we had taken out of the original sentence either of 
these two words " baby sleeps," we should have destroyed 
the sentence, but so long as these two words remain, the 
sentence stands unbroken, no matter what other words are 
cut off. These two, then, are the most important words in 
the sentence; they are the backbone of the sentence — the 
foundation on which all the rest is built. All the other 
words are joined to one or the other of these two in order 
to enlarge or complete its meaning ; and so the others 
are called adjuncts* 



Words joined to another word in order to enlarge its 
meaning are called its adjuncts. 



LESSON XXIV. 

Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 

[To be studied and recited.] 

The first four words of the original sentence taken 
together, viz., 

Mamma's darling little baby, 
are called the complete subject, and 



* " Adjunct " means joined to. 



56 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Baby 

is called the bare subject. The last five words taken 
together, viz., 

Sleeps sweetly in its cradle, 
are called the complete predicate, and 

Sleeps 
is called the bare predicate. The whole original sentence, 

Mamma's darling little baby sleeps sweetly in its 
cradle, 

is called the complete sentence, and the little stript 
sentence, 

Baby sleeps, 
is called the bare sentence. 



Questions for Recitation, 

i. The first four words of the original sentence taken together, 
viz., 

Mamma's darling* little baby, 
are called what ? 

2. Baby is called what ? 

3. The last three words of the original sentence taken together, 
viz., 

Sleeps sweetly in its cradle, 
are called what ? 

4. Sleeps is called what ? 

5. The whole original sentence, viz., 

Mamma's darling little baby sleeps sweetly in its cradle, 
is called what ? 

6. The little stript sentence, 
Baby sleeps, 

is called what ? 

7. Name the complete subject. 

8. Name the bare subject. 

9. Name the complete predicate. 

10. Name the bare predicate. 

11. Name the complete sentence. 

12. Name the bare sentence, 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 57 

LESSON XXV. 

The Bare Sentence Defined. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Copy the following sentences, and in every one draw 

1. A vertical line between the complete subject and 
the complete predicate, 

2. A double line under the bare subject, 

3 A double line under the bare predicate.* 

1. Two gray owls built their nest in a tree near our house. 

2. Our Puritan ancestors suffered great hardships. 

3. The honest farmer laughed heartily at my jokes. 

2. VZW A u bare " sentence is a sentence that contains but two 
wards, one of them the subject and the other the predicate. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model ; 

The beautiful snow falls lightly to the ground. In this sentence, 
" the beautiful snow " is the complete subject, and " falls lightly to 
the ground '' is the complete predicate. " Snow " is the bare subject, 
and " falls " is the bare predicate. " Snow falls " is the bare 
sentence. 

Repeat the definition of the lesson in concert. 

LESSON XXVI. 
The Bare Subject Defined. 
Written Exercise. 
1. Copy the following sentences, and in every one draw 

1. A vertical line between subject and predicate, 

2. A double line under the bare subject, 

3. A double line under the bare predicate. 



* Model : 

The beautiful snow | falls lightly to the ground. 



58 A PKIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

1. The good old ship sank at last in mid-ocean. 

2. A great fire destroyed a large part of the city of Chicago. 

3. Our new carriage horses ran away the very next day. 

2. (E1T A " bare" subject is a subject consisting of one ivord. 

Oral Exercise. 

Ilecite as in the preceding lesson. 



LESSON XXVII. 

The Bare Predicate Defined 
Written Exercise. 

1. Copy the following sentences, and in every one draw 

1. A vertical line between the subject and the predicate, 

2. A double line under the bare subject, 

3. A double line under the bare predicate. 

1. Joan of Arc perished at the stake. 

2. A grizzly bear chased the boys nearly a mile. 

3. De Witt Clinton, one of New York's greatest men, built the 
Erie Canal. 

2. $W A "bare" predicate is a predicate consisting of one 
word. 

Oral Exercise. 
llecite as in Lesson xxv. 



LESSON XXVIII. 

Bare Sentences Enlarged. 

Written Exercise. 

Enlarge the following bare sentences by adding suitable 
words to subject and predicate. In the enlarged sentences 
thus made draw two lines under each bare subject and bare 
predicate, and a separating line between each complete 
subject and complete predicate, thus : 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 59 

Bare sentence, 

Lead floats. 
Enlarged sentence, 

Lead, though a metal and a very heavy one, | floats 

when placed in a vessel of quicksilver. 

1. Children laugh. 2. Carlo barked. 3. Girls cry, 

4. Pussy scratched. 5. Dogs bite. 6. Apples grow. 

Oval Exercise. 
Model : 

Lead floats. This is a bare sentence. It may be enlarged by 
adding to the subject the following words — " though a metal, and a 
very heavy one," and to the predicate the following words — " when 
placed in a vessel of quicksilver." The enlarged sentence will then 
be, Lead, though a metal, aud a very heavy one, floats when 
placed in a vessel of quicksilver, in which " lead " is the bare 
subject, and " floats" the bare predicate ; and " lead, though a metal, 
and a very heavy one," is the complete subject, and " floats when 
placed in a vessel of quicksilver" the complete predicate. 



LESSON XXIX. 

Complete Sentences Stript. 

Written Exercise. 

Strip the following sentences of all adjuncts, so as to 
make each one a bare sentence. In each complete sentence, 
separate subject from predicate by a vertical line.* 

1. A great fire occurred in New York in the winter of 1835. 

2. The Revolutionary War began in 1775, with the battle of 
Lexington, 

3. Our finest oranges come from Florida. 

4. Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, emancipated 
four million slaves. 



* Model ; 

The Chicago fire | destroyed two hundred million dollars' worth of property. 

Fire destroyed. (Bare sentence). 



60 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercise. 

Model : 

The Chicago fire destroyed two hundred million dollars' worth 
of property. Iii this complete sentence, " the Chicago lire," is the 
complete subject, and " destroyed two hundred million dollars' worth 
of property " the complete predicate. It may he made a bare 
sentence by cutting off from the subject the adjuncts " the " and 
"Chicago," and from the predicate the phrase-adjunct*, "two 
hundred million dollars' worth of property." We shall then have 
the bare sentence, Fire destroyed. 



LESSON XXX. 

Rare Sentences Enlarged. 

Written Exercise. 

Enlarge the following bare sentences, so that each com- 
plete sentence shall have at least three words in the sub- 
ject, and three in the predicate ; in the enlarged sentences 
separate subject from predicate by a vertical line.f 

1. Trees grow. :): 2 Soldiers fight, 3. Lions roar. 4. Rainfalls. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

Horses died. This bare sentence may be enlarged by adding to 
the subject the following adjuncts : " our," " three," " poor " and 
" blind," and to the predicate the following phrase-adjuncts ; " last 
night " and " of old age." The complete sentence will then be — 



* When an adjunct consists of several words that cannot be taken separately, 
it is called a phrase-adjunct* 

•j- Model : 
Horses died. 
Our three, poor, blind horses | died last night of old age, 

J Hints to aid the pupil ; To enlarge the first sentence, " Trees grow," ask 
yourself, What trees ? Whose trees ? Grow where ? Grow how ? To en- 
large the second sentence, " Soldiers fight, 1 ' ask yourself, What soldiers ? 
Fight whom, or how, or why ? and so for the rest. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 61 

Our three, poor, blind horses died last night of old age— in which 
" our three, poor, blind horses " is the complete subject, and " died 
last night of old age," the complete predicate. 



LESSON XXXI. 

Building up Sentences, Step by Step. 

Written Exercise. 

Take the bare sentences contained in the following com- 
plete sentences, and build up the complete sentences step 
by step.* 

1. Our three, poor, blind horses died last night of old age. 

2. Galileo, an Italian philosopher, constructed the first telescope 
about the year 1609. 

3. George Washington, the father of his country, died at Mount 
Vernon, his home, in 1799. 

4. Brunei, an English engineer, built that monster ship, the Great 
Eastern. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

The wild monkeys of South America cliinh trees with the 
greatest agility. In this complete sentence the bare sentence is 
" monkeys climb. M 1. This is built up by first adding to the pre- 



* Model Exercise ; 

Language Lesson. 

Dec. 10, 1890— Charles Wilson. 
Building up Sentences, Step by Step. 

The wild monkeys of South America climb trees with the greatest agility. 
(Complete sentence). 

Monkeys climb. (Bare sentence). 
First step : 

Monkeys climb trees. 
Second step : 

Wild monkeys climb trees. 
Third step : 

The wild monkeys of South America climb trees. 
Fourth step ; 

The wild monkeys of South America climb trees with agility. 
Fifth step ; 

The wild monkeys of South America climb trees with the greatest agility. 



62 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

dicate the adjunct " trees," making monkeys climb trees ; 2, by adding 
to the subject the adjunct " wild," making wild monkeys climb trees ; 
3, by adding to the subject the adjunct '• the " and the phrase-ad- 
junct " of South America," making the wild monkeys of South 
America climb trees ; 4, by adding to the predicate the phrase ad- 
junct " with agility," making the wild monkeys of South America 
climb trees with agility ; 5, and lastly, by adding to the predicate the 
phrase-adjunct ki the greatest," making % tlie complete sentence, the 
wild monkeys of South America climb trees with the greatest agility. 



LESSON XXXII. 

Building up Sentences, Step by Step. 

Written Exercise. 

Enlarge the following bare sentences gradually by three 
or more steps :* 

1. Flowers bloom.f 2. Fire burned. 3. Bells ring. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

Lee surrendered. This is a bare sentence. It may be enlarged 
by, 1, adding to the predicate the phrase-adjunct " to Grant," making 
it, Lee surrendered to Grant; 2, by adding to the predicate the 
phrase-adjunct, " at Appomattox," making it, Lee surrendered to 
Grant at Appomattox ; 3, by adding to the subject the phrase -ad - 



* Model : 

Lee surrendered. 
First step : 

Lee surrendered to Grant. 
Second step ; 

Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox. 
Third Step ; 

Lee, with his army, surrendered to Grant at Appomattox. 
Fourth step ; 

Lee, with his whole army, surrendered to Grant, at Appomattox. 
Fifth step ; 

Lee, with his whole army, surrendered to Grant, at Appomattox, in 1865. 

f Hints to aid the pupil ; To enlarge the first sentence, " Flowers bloom," 
ask yourself, What flowers ? Whose flowers ? Bloom when, where, how 
often ? and so on. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 63 

junct, " with his army," making it, Lee, icitli his- army, surrendered 
to Grant at Appomattox ; 4, by adding to the subject the adjunct 
" whole,'" making it, Lee, with his whole army, surrendered to Grant 
at Appomattox ; 5, and lastly, by adding to the predicate the phrase- 
adjunct, " in 1865," making the complete sentence, Lee, with his whole 
army, surrendered to Grant at Appomattox, in 1865. 



LESSON XXXIII. 

Building up Sentences, Step by Step. 

Written Exercise. 

Treat the following sentences according to the directions 

given in the preceding lesson : 

1. Baby walks. 2. Cattle drink. 3. Farmers plough. 

£3F" When an adjunct consists of several words that cannot 
be taken separately, it is called a plirase-adjmict. 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite as in the preceding lesson. 

LESSON XXXIV. 

Review : The Statement. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Write five statements, or sentences, each consisting of 
an article, a nonn and a verb, as The lightning flashed. A 
prisoner escaped. An apple fell (Underscore the verbs). 

2. $W Every sentence must begin with a capital. 

3. %W Every sentence must contain a verb.* 

4. Fill the following blanks so as to make sentences, or, 
so as to express thoughts. (Underscore the nouns). 

1. bite. 2. Cattle . 3, bleat. 4. Kittens . 



* In making sentences we may do without any other part of speech but the 
verb. For this reason, the ancient Latins called it " the word." (Latin, 
verbum, the <word) % 



64 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercise. 
Models ; 

1. The lightning 1 flashed. In this sentence, " the " is an article, 
" lightning " is a noun, and " flashed " is a verb. 

Repeat the two rules in concert. 

2. Musquitoes bite. These words express a thought, and are there- 
fore a sentence. 

LESSON XXXV. 

Review ; The Sentence Defined. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Express three thoughts by making three sentences, 
each consisting of an article, a noun and a verb. 

2. ^* Every sentence makes sense. 

3. %W Every sentence expresses a thought. 

4. Complete the following sentences : 

1, A boy , 2. The monkey . 

3, A howled. 4. An bellows. 

5. HP"/ A sentence is a thought put into words. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

The frog croaked. These words express a thought, and are 
therefore a sentence. " The " is an article, " frog " is a noun, and 
"croaked n is a verb. 

Repeat in concert the three general statements pointed out by the 
index ( m~ ). 

LESSON XXXVI. 
Review ; The Phrase. 
Written Exercise. 
Copy the sentences and phrases given in Lesson vm., 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 65 

page 42, the sentences together, first, then the phrases 
together. (Observe the capitals and punctuation). 



A "phrase" is a set of words rightly put together, 
hut not making 1 sense. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model as in Lesson viii. 
Repeat the above definition in concert. 



LESSON XXXVII. 

Review ; Declarative and Interrogative Sentences. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Make four declarative sentences by declaring some- 
thing of the following things : 

1, A tree, 2 A cow, 3. The goat, 4. The fire. 

2. ESP" A " declarative " sentence is one that declares some- 
thing. 

3 Ask four questions by turning into interrogative 
sentences the four declarative sentences you have just made. 
(Use the interrogation-mark). 

4. WT An " interrogative " sentence is a question. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model ; 

A hoy skates. This is a declarative sentence, because it declares 
something. 

Repeat the first definition in concert. 

Does the hoy skate 1 This is an interrogative sentence, because it 
is a question. 

Repeat the second definition in concert. 



66 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

LESSON XXXVIII. 

Review : Imperative and Exclamative Sentences. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Write three sentences in the form of a command, or 
entreaty, requesting that something be done. (See Lesson 
xii., page 45). 

2. WW An "imperative" sentence is a request, in the form 
of a command, or entreaty. 

3. Convert the six declarative sentences given in Les- 
son xii., page 45, into imperative sentences. (Carefully 
observe the required punctuation), 

4. Compose two "exclamative" sentences. (Observe 
the exclamation-mark). 

5. M§~ An " exclamative " sentence is an exclamation. 

Oral Exercise. 
Models : 

1. Come here my son. This sentence is a request, in the form of 
a command, and is therefore an imperative sentence. 

[Repeat the first definition in concert.] 

2. Mary sings for papa. This declarative sentence may be 
changed into an imperative sentence, as follows : Mary, sing for 
papa. 

3. What a noise you make ! This sentence is an exclamation, 
and is therefore an exclamative sentence. 

[Repeat the second definition in concert.] 

LESSON XXXIX. 

Review : A Test-Lesson, 

Written Exercise. 

1. Group together properly all the miscellaneous sen- 
tences given in Lesson xiv., page 47. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 67 

2. Terminal* points : 

Declarative and imperative sentences must end with a 
period. 

Interrogative sentences must end with an interrogation- 
point. (?) 

Exclamative sentences must end with an exclamation- 
point. ( / ) 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite after the model of Lesson xiv. 
Repeat in concert the above rules for terminal points. 



LESSON XL. 

Review : Subject and Predicate. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Compose three sentences each consisting of an article, 
an adjective, a noun, a verb, another article, another ad- 
jective and another noun ; separate subject from predicate 
by a vertical line ; thus : 

The pet monkey | spoiled a new hat, 

2 . $W Every sentence is made up of two parts— suhject and 
predicate. 

3. &~ The suhject of a sentence is the part mentioned to 
begin with. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model ; 

The pet monkey spoiled a new hat. In this sentence the sub- 
ject, " the pet monkey," consists of an article, au adjective and a 
noun ; and the predicate, " spoiled a new hat," consists of a verb, 
an article, an adjective and a noun. 

Repeat in concert the two general statements of the lesson. 



* " Terminal " means at the end. 



68 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

LESSON XLI. 

Review : The Predicate a Verb. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Compose three sentences whose predicates shall con- 
sist of one word only ; separate subject from predicate by a 
vertical line ; thus : 

I | write. The tired little boy | sleeps. 

2. WT The predicate of a sentence is the part that tells some- 
thing' about the subject. 

3. !^" When the predicate consists of only one word, that 
word is always a verb. 

Oral Exercise. 

Model : 

The tired little hoy sleeps. In this sentence, the predicate con- 
sists of but one word, the verb " sleeps." 

Repeat in concert the two general statements of the lesson. 



LESSON XLII. 

Review ; The Bare Sentence. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Write six sentences containing but two words each. 

2. I3P A bare sentence is a sentence that contains but two 
words. 

3. 2t^~ A bare subject is a subject consisting* of one word. 

4. WT A bare predicate is a predicate consisting of one word. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model ; 

Bells jingle. This is a bare sentence. 
Repeat in concert the three above definitions. 



A PKIMEK OF LANGUAGE. 69 



LESSON XLIII. 

Review : The Complete Sentence, 

Written Exercise. 

Enlarge the following "bare" sentences by clothing sub- 
jects and predicates with suitable adjuncts, thus : 
Bare sentence, 

Baby sleeps. 

Enlarged, or complete sentence, 

Mamma's darling little baby sleeps sweetly in its 
cradle. 

1 . Joan perished. 2. Clinton built. 

3. Bear chased. 4. Horses ran. 

Ifig^ The above example, Mamma's darling little baby 
sleeps sweetly in its cradle, is called a " complete" sentence ; 
mamma's darling little baby is the " complete" subject, and 
sleeps sweetly in its cradle, the " complete" predicate. 

USS * Words joined to another word in order to enlarge 
its meaning are called its " adjuncts." Thus, in the above 
enlarged sentence, "mamma's," "darling," and "little" 
are adjuncts of " baby." 

Oval Exercise. 
Model ; 

Baby sleeps. This is a bare seDtence. It may be enlarged as 
follows — Mamma's darling little baby sleeps sweetly in its cradle. 

Repeat in concert the two general statements of the lesson. 



LESSON XLIV. 

Review : The Complete Sentence. 
Written Exercise. 

1. Enlarge the following bare sentences by clothing sub- 
ject and predicate with suitable adjuncts : 



70 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

1. Ship sank. 2, Farmer laughed. 

3. Ancestors suffered. 4. Owls built. 

2. HP The " complete 95 sentence is made up of the bare sen- 
tence and one or more adjuncts. 

3. tfSF" The " complete" subject is made up of the bare sub- 
ject and one or more adjuncts. 

4. %W The " complete 9 ' predicate is made up of the bare pre- 
dicate and one or more adjuncts. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

Monkeys climb. This bare sentence may be enlarged by clothing 
subject and predicate with adjuncts as follows : The wild monkeys 
of South America climb trees with the greatest agility. 

Repeat the above general statements in concert. 



LESSON XLV. 

Review : A Test-Lesson. 

Oral Exercise. 

Read the following examples aloud in class, and tell 
which are sentences and which are not, giving the reason 
in each case, and completing those that are deficient. 

Model : 

The expression, " Is well," is not a sentence, because the subject is 
wanting. It may be completed thus : " Mrs. Jone's baby is well." 

The expression, " Mother and I," is not a sentence, because the 
predicate is wanting. It may be completed thus : " Mother and I 
took a walk." 

The expression, " Charley likes cheese," is a sentence, because it 
contains subject and predicate, and makes sense. 

Sentences and Phrases 

Is well. We cannot go. 

Mother and I. Your father and mother. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 71 

Charley likes cheese. George Washington saved his 

Pussy loves Mary. country. 

James Cavendish. A very bad boy. 

Fell on the ice. Lies and steals. 

Christmas is coming. My mother. 

Will you wait ? Loves me. 

In the house. At home. 

Yes, sir. Birds fly. 

Whom you met, The cruel boys worried the 

What I said. poor cat to death. 



LESSON XLVI. 

Review : Phrases. 
Written Exercise. 

1. Collect the expressions in the foregoing list which do 
not make sense, but which, so far as they go, are rightly 
put together and are therefore phrases. 

2. %W A " phrase" is a set of words r'ujMly put together, 
but not making* sense. 

3. HEP" When an adjunct consists of several words that cannot 
he taken separately, it is called a phrase -adjunct. 

LESSON XL VII. 
Summary of Rules. Definitions and Principles 

[To be studied and recited.] 

1. A statement is a remark consisting of two parts, viz. : 

A subject. 

Something said about the subject. 
What is a statement ? 

2. Such expressions as stars twinkle, rivers flow, smoke 
rises are statements, or sentences. 

Give four examples of statements, or sentences. 



72 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

3. Every sentence must begin with a capital. 
Give the rule for beginning every sentence. 

4. Every sentence must contain a verb. 
Every sentence must contain what ? 

5. Every sentence expresses a thought. 
Every sentence expresses what ? 

6. A sentence is a thought put into words. 
Define a sentence. 

7. Every sentence makes sense. 
Every sentence makes what ? 

8. A phrase is a set of words rightly put together, but 
not making sense. 

A phrase is what ? 

9. A declarative sentence is one that declares something. 
What is a declarative sentence ? 

10. An interrogative sentence is a question. 
What is an interrogative sentence ? 

11. An imperative sentence is a request in the form of 
a command, or entreaty. 

What is an imperative sentence ? 

12. An exclamative sentence is an exclamation. 
What is an exclamative sentence ? 

13. Every declarative and imperative sentence must end 
with a period. 

Give the rule for ending every declarative and imperative sentence. 

14. Every interrogative sentence must end with an in- 
terrogation-mark. 

Give the rule for ending every interrogative sentence. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 73 

15. Every exclamative sentence must end with an ex- 
clamation-mark. 

Give the rule for ending every exclamative sentence. 

16. Every sentence is made up of two parts, subject and 
predicate. 

Every sentence is made up of what ? 

17. The subject of a sentence is the part mentioned to 
begin with. 

What is the subject of a sentence ? 

18. The predicate of a sentence is the part that tells 
something about the subject. 

What is the predicate of a- sentence ? 

19. When the predicate consists of only one word, that 
word is always a verb. 

Give the rule about the predicate when it consists of only one 
word. 

20. A sentence that contains only two words is called a 
bare sentence. 

What is a bare sentence ? 

21. A bare subject is a subject consisting of only one word. 
What is a bare subject ? 

22. A bare predicate is a predicate consisting of only 
one word. 

What is a bare predicate ? 

23. Words joined to another word in order to enlarge its 
meaning are called its adjuncts. 

What are adjuncts ? 

24. When an adjunct consists of several words that 
cannot be taken separately, it is called a phrase-adjunct. 

What is a phrase-adjunct ? 



74 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

25. The complete sentence is made up of the bare sen- 
tence and one or more adjuncts. 

The complete sentence is made up of what ? 

26. The complete subject is made up of the bare subject 
and one or more adjuncts. 

The complete subject is made up of what ? 

27. The complete predicate is made up of the bare pre- 
dicate and one or more adjuncts. 

The complete predicate is made up of what ? 



LESSON XLVIIL 
Written Examination. 

1. Every sentence must begin how ? 

2. Every sentence must contain what ? 

3. What can you say about sentences making sense ? 

4. What must every sentence express ? 

5. Define the sentence. Give a short example. 

6. What is a phrase ? Give example. 

7. What is a declarative sentence ? With what mark 
must it end ? Give example. 

8. What is an interrogative sentence ? With what mark 
must it end ? Give example . 

9. What is an imperative sentence ? With what mark 
must it end ? Give example. 

10. What is an exclamative sentence ? With what mark 
must it end ? Give example. 

11. Every sentence is made up of how many parts ? 
Name them. 

12. What is the subject of a sentence ? Give example of 
a sentence, and underscore the subject. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 75 

13. What is the predicate of a sentence ? Give example 
of a sentence, and underscore the predicate. 

14. When the predicate consists of only one word, what 
part of speech is that word ? Give example, and under- 
score the predicate. 

15. What is a bare sentence ? Give example. 

16. What is a bare subject ? A bare predicate ? 

17. What is an adjunct? Give example, and underscore 
the adjunct. 

18. What is a phrase-adjunct ? Give example, and un- 
derscore the phrase- adjunct. 

19. What is the complete sentence ? 

20. What is the complete subject ? What is the complete 
predicate ? 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 77 

CHAPTER IV. 

THE OTHER PARTS OF SPEECH. 



LESSON I. 

The Pronoun. 

[To be read in class .*] 

It" your teacher should say, John loves John's dog ; you 
would tell her she did not speak correctly ; that she 
ought to say, John loves his dog. Take the following 
sentences: Mary learns Mary's lesson. Trees lose trees' 
leaves in winter. The words "Mary's 7 ' and " trees'" are 
wrong. Observe they are both nouns. The sentences 
should be, Mary learns her lesson. Trees lose their leaves in 
winter. The words " her" and " their" are used instead of 
the nouns, "Mary's" and "trees'." They are called 
pronouns, (for-nouns)A They are substitutes $ for nouns. 
The following sentence is queer: Mary said, " Mary loves 
Mary's little brother? If we substitute the words " I" and 
"my" for the nouns "Mary" and "Mary's/' it will be 
much improved ; thus : Mary said, "I love my little br other P 
" 1 " and " my ?? are called pronouns, or, substitutes for 
nouns. 

Written Exercise. 

$^~ The " pronoun " is a substitute-word. 

Copy the following sentences, and underscore the pro- 
nouns : S 



* See note on page I. 

j Latin, pro means for. 

j A " substitute " is a person or thing put in place of another . 

\ The pronouns in most common use are the following : I. >ye. YOU. lie. 

she, it, me, us, him, her, they, them, my, mine, our, ours, your, 
yours, his, hers, its, their, theirs. 



78 A PBIMEK OF LANGUAGE. 

Our country is very extensive. 

We live in a favored land. 

You that have good parents ought to be thankful, 

I read the book and returned it to the library. 

Father invited his friend to dinner. 

Children, obey your parents. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model for Recitation : 
Our country is very extensive. " Our " is a pronoun. 
Recite the above definition in concert. 



LESSON II. 

The Pronoun. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Correct the following sentence by substituting pro- 
nouns for the nouns that are improperly used : Mr. Jones 
told Mr. Jones's scholars that the scholars might go. [Notice 
that the noun " Mr." and the article "the? disappear 
along with the nouns they belong to]. 

2. Correct the following in a similar way : 

The dog bit the dog's little master, while playing with the 
dog's little master 

3. Compose five sentences, each containing a different 
one of the following pronouns : I, you, he, she, it. [Observe 
that U I V stands for the name of the person that speaks, 
" you " stands for the name of the person that is spoken to, 
and " he," u she," and " it " stand for the name of the per 
son or thing that is spoken of]. 

4. iggp A " pronoun " stands for a noun. 

Oral Exercise. 
Models : 

1. Mr. Jones told Mr. Jones's scholars that the scholars might 

go. This sentence should be as follows : " Mr. Jones told his 
scholars that they might go." 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 79 

2. I like flowers. " I " is a pronoun. It stands for the name of 
the person that speaks. 

3. James, the teacher called you. " You " is a pronoun. It 
stands for the name of the person that is spoken to. 

[And so for the other pronouns.] 

Recite the general statement of the lesson in concert. 



LESSON III. 

The Pronoun, 

Written Exercise. 

1. Compose six sentences, each containing a different 

one of the following pronouns: I, me; ive, us ; my, our ; 
as, I am ivell. The President spoke to me. 

2. I^ The pronoun " I " must always be written as a capital* 

8. Compose six sentences, each containing a different 
one of the following pronouns: he, him; they, them; 
his, their. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 
I am well* " I " is a pronoun. 
Repeat the rule in concert. 

LESSON IV. 

The Pkonoun. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Compose seven sentences, each containing a different 

one of the following pronouns : she, her, hers ; it, its ; your, 

yours. 

[If I should say, The big Newfoundland dog is very fond 
of the big Newfoundland dog's young master, you would tell 
me it was wrong — that I ought to say : The big Newfound- 
land dog is very fond o/his young master. So you see that 



80 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

the pronoun "his" must be substituted for the whole 
phrase, " the big Newfoundland dog's." J 
2. Correct the following sentences : 

1. The bright little Japanese scholar took off the bright little 
Japanese scholar's cap as the bright little Japanese scholar entered 
the room. 

2. Billy, the children's favorite saddle-horse, thrashed the baby in 
the face with the children's favorite saddle-horse's tail, without sus- 
pecting that the children's favorite saddle horse was showing great 
discourtesy to the president's little son. 

fin the sentence, He is in jail, and I do ?iot wonder at it, 
the pronoun " it" refers to the words l4 he is in jail."] 

[From these examples it appears that in reality the 
pronoun often stands for a group of words]. 

3. 6^ The pronoun often stands for a group of words. 

Oral Exercise. 
Models : 

1. She is my Mend, " She " is a, pronoun. 

2. Tell that little girl in a pretty pink dress that I would like to 
speak to that little girl in a pretty pink dress. This sentence 
should be as follows : " Tell that little girl in a pretty pink dress 
that I would like to speak to her." 

Repeat the rule in concert. 

LESSON V. 

The Adverb. 
[ To be read in class.] 

Take the sentence, The river floivs. Suppose you wished 
to tell how it flows, or, its mode or manner of flowing, you 
might say it flows softly, or noisily, or siviftly, or sluggishly. 
These words would describe the mode of the verb, and would 
be said to modify* it. They are called adverbs.] 



"* u Modify " has here somewhat the meaning of describe. 
■j- So called because they are added to the verb. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 81 

Written Exercise. 

1. Complete the following sentences by inserting 
adverbs that modify the verbs : 

1. The canary sings (tell how.) 3. Puss creeps . 

2. The preacher spoke . 4. Mary laughed . 

2. Compose live other similar sentences. 

3. Iiy Words that modify verbs are called " adverbs." 

Oral Exercise. 

Model ; 

The river flows swiftly. " Swiftly " is an adverb. It modifies 
the verb " flows " — that is, it tells its mode or manner of flowing. 
Repeat the rule in concert. 

LESSON VI. 

The Adverb. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Compose ten sentences, each containing an article, a 
noun, a verb and an adverb ; as, The judge decided unfairly, 
A pig eats greedily. 

2. £^ " Adverbs" sometimes modify verbs. 

[We shall see in the next lesson that this is not ail that 
adverbs do.] 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

The judge decided unfairly. " Unfairly" is an adverb. It modi- 
fies the verb " decided" — that is, it tells liow he decided, or his mode 
of deciding. 

Repeat the rule in concert. 

Read the remarks of the next lesson. 



82 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

LESSON VII. 
The Adverb. 
[To be read in class.] 
m Consider the following phrases : A truly wise man, an 
uncommonly severe storm, a remarkably earnest face. The 
words " truly," " uncommonly," and " remarkably " are 
adverbs, but they do not modify verbs, for there are no verbs 
in the examples. They are all connected with adjectives — 
" truly " with the adjective wise, " uncommonly 17 with the 
adjective severe, and 44 remarkably " with the adjective 
earnest. In fact they modify the adjectives. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Compose five other phrases similar to the above.* 

2. Complete the following: 

1, She is young, 3. A excited speaker. 

2, He was intoxicated, 4. Her figure was slight. 

3. iSF" Adverbs sometimes modify adjectives. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

Socrates was a truly wise mail. " Truly" is an adverb. It 
modifies the adjective " wise" — that is, it tells how wise he was, 
Repeat the rule. 

LESSON VIII. 
The Adverb 
[ To be read in class ] 

Consider the following sentences : You eat too rapidly. 
Speak more Slowly Mary sings exceedingly well. The 



* A few adverbs are given here to aid the pupil (Observe that most of 

them end in ly) ; rather, somewhat, slightly, greatly, exceedingly, 
deeply, strongly, painfully, pleasantly, doubtfully, wisely, plainly, 
faintly, silently, noisily, very, quite, truly, dangerously, sweetly. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 83 

words u too," "more" and " exceedingly v are adverbs. 
They are connected with "rapidly," "slowly" and 
" well," which are themselves adverbs also. We thus 
discover that adverbs sometimes modify other adverbs. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Compose five sentences similar to the above, using 
the following adverbs : Quite, very, rather, most, less. 

2. §®" Adverbs sometimes modify other adverbs. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model ; 

You eat too rapidly. " Too" is an adverb. It modifies the ad- 
verb " rapidly'' — that is, it tells how rapidly you eat. 
Repeat the rule. 



LESSON IX. 

The Adverb. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Compose three sentences, each containing an adverb 
modifying a verb. 

2. Compose three sentences, each containing an adverb 
modifying an adjective. 

3. Compose three sentences, each containing an adverb 
modifying another adverb. 

4. £IP Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives anil other 
adverbs. 

Oral Exercise. 

Models ; 

1. The canary sings sweetly. " Sweetly*' is an adverb ; it modi- 
fies the verb " sings,'' tellmg. how he sings. 

2. She is quite youngl " Quite" is an adverb ; it modifies the 
adjective " young" telling how young she is. 



84^ A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

3. Speak more slowly. " More" is an adverb* ; it modifies Hie 
adverb " slowly," telling how slowly you sliould speak. 

Repeat the rule. 



LESSON X. 

The Preposition. 
[To be read in class.} 

When I say, " The book is on the desk," the word " on " 
shows the situation of the book with reference to the desk, 
or in relation to the desk. If now I say, " The book is in 
the desk," the word " in " shows that the situation of the 
book with reference to 4 the desk, or in relation to the desk is 
different from what it was before. We might say — " the 
book is on, in, under, over, above, beloio, beside, before, behind, 
or beneath the desk": the words " on," " in," " under," 
&c, show the situation of the book in reference to, or in 
relation to the desk, or, show the relation of the book to the 
desk. Where is the dog in reference to, or in relation to his 
kennel? Perhaps he is mit; perhaps on it; perhaps be- 
side it. Where is the bird in reference to, or in relation to 
its nest ? Perhaps it is in its nest; perhaps under'xt ; per- 
haps over it. Such words as in, on, beside, under, over, &c, 
are reference-words \ they are sometimes called relation- 
words. They are prepositions. 

Take the sentence, "James fell through the ice." This 
statement tells us two things : 

First, that James fell) and 

Secondly, that his fall was in reference to the ice, or in 
relation to the ice. This reference, or relation is shown by 
the word " through," which is therefore called a " relation- 
w ord , " or preposition. 



* " More" sometimes modifies a noun, as, I nave more money than I want \ 
In such cases it is an adjective. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 85 



Written Exercise. 
1. Insert " relation-words/' or prepositions in the follow- 
ing blanks : 

1. London is the largest city the world. 

2. Jesus Was nailed the cross two thieves. 

3. The poor slave was punished fifty lashes his bare back. 

4. The Declaration Independence was written Thomas 

Jefferson the city Philadelphia. 

5. The dogs ran the fox. • 

2. J®* Prepositions are relation-words. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

James fell through the ice, " Through" is a relation-word, or 
preposition, showing what reference, or relation his fall had to the 
ice. — 

Repeat the definition. 

LESSON XI. 
The Preposition. 
Written Exercise. 
1. Complete the following sentences, filling the blanks 
with prepositions. (Do not repeat) : 

1. A squirrel sprang the tree. 

2. The mouse ran the clock, 

3. A child fell the water. 

4. The Pilgrim Fathers sailed Holland and landed New 

England. 

5. Bob has gone the city — — a visit. 

6. Mary went him. 

7. A party emigrants were killed the Indians. 

8. I have rooms the Washington Hotel. 

9. Father bought a basket peaches half a dollar. 

2. SisT* Prepositions are relation -words. 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite as in the preceding lesson. 



86 A PKIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



LESSON XII. 

The Preposition. 
[To be read in class.] 

The word tl preposition " means placed before,, It is so 
named because when used it is placed before a noun or 
pronoun, as, in the phrases, 

In a tree, Down the hill. Up a ladder, 
Under the bam, To me, For you, With them. 

Perhaps some of the scholars discover that in several 
of the above phrases the preposition is iu reality placed 
before an article instead of a noun or pronoun. This 
requires explanation. Take the sentence, There is a bear 
lip the tree. Here the preposition shows a relation of the 
word u tree " to the word u bear." The article is an un- 
important part of the statement, and is left out of con- 
sideration in the present explanation. If a little child 
that did not know many words, and had not learned to 
put them together properly, should run into the house 
and excitedly say to its mother, " Mamma, bear up tree," 
the mother would understand the child's meaning at once. 
For these three words, " bear up tree," give the sense of 
the perfect statement — " there is a bear up the tree." 
" Bear " and " tree " are the words whose relation is 
shown by the preposition u up." We may therefore leave 
out the article " the " in considering this relation, and say 
correctly that the preposition is placed before the noun 
" tree." 

Written Exercise. 

1. Compose ten phrases, using the following preposi- 
tions. (Do not repeat) . In around, to, for, ivith, by, from, 
during, under, over. Thus, in the ivater, around the house. 

2. &T " Preposition" means placed before. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 87 



Oral Exercise. 
Model ; 

In the house. " In" is a preposition. It is placed before the 
noun " house," 

Repeat the above definition. 



LESSON XIII. 

The Preposition. 
[To be read in class.] 

You will presently be called on to compose sentences 
containing certain prepositions. Suppose you had to 
make a sentence containing the preposition up 1 and you 
should write, Little Bessie pulled the bean up to see if it had 
sprouted. That would not be right. It is a good sentence, 
but it is not what was required. You learned in Lesson 
XII. that the word " preposition v means placed before, 
and that it is so called because, in sentences, it is placed 
before a noun or a pronoun. But in the above sentence, 
" up " is not placed before a noun or a pronoun. In that 
case it is not a preposition, but an adverb, as I will ex- 
plain more fully by and by. If you had written, Little- 
Bessie pulled the bean up the hill in her cart, it would have been 
correct, because in this sentence " up " stands before the 
noun " hill,'' and is a preposition. Words often have 
various meanings and various uses in sentences. 

Written Exercise. 
1. Insertsui table prepositions in thefollowingsentences : 

1 . The leaves fall — — the ground — the autumn. 

2. The Chinese eat chopsticks. 

3. John cuts the grass a lawn-mower. 

4. Washington drew his sw T ord its scabbard. 

5. Dip your pen the ink carefully. 

2. 2SP" " Preposition" means placed before. 



88 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

Little Bessie pulled the bean up the Mil in her cart. In this 
sentence " up" and " in" are prepositions. •' Up" is placed before 
the noun " hill," and " in" is placed before the noun " cart." 

Repeat the above definition. 

Explanatory Note. 
In sentences like these : 

Here is the knife I spoke of, 
and the second is equivalent to 

You are the hoy I allude to, 
the words "of" and "to" are prepositions, although they do not 
stand before a noun or a pronoun. The first sentence is equiva- 
lent* to 

Here is the knife of which I spoke. 
You are the boy to whom I allude. 
" Which" and " whom" are pronouns. 



LESSON XIV. 

The Preposition. 
[To be read in class] 
+ In the sentence " Little Bessie pulled the bean up the 
li ill in her cart," " up '' and " in " are prepositions, as you 
have learned. " Up '' isplaced before the noun il hill," and 
"in 7> is placed before the noun "cart." Each shows a certain 
r elation between the word it is placed before and some 
other word. The sentence might have said " Little Bessie 
pulled the bean down the hill.'' Then "down " would 
show a different relation between the noun " hill " and the 
other word. What is that other word? Is it " bean "? 
That stands next to the preposition. What took place 
up the hill, or down the hill? Does u bean " show 
what took place? No. Does not " pulled " show 
what took place? Bessie pulled np the hill — or down 



* il Equivalent" means having the same value, or meaning. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 89 

the bill — did she not? Then "pulled" is the word 
that is related to " hill " — this relation being shown by 
the preposition. Take another sentence. " The leaves 
fall from the trees in the autumn. " In this sentence, 
"from*' and " in " are prepositions. " From " shows a re- 
lation between the word it stands before, viz., u trees," and 
some other word. " In ' ? shows a relation between the 
word it stands before, viz., " autumn," and some other word. 
What is that other word % It is plain enough that u from M 
shows a relation between •• fall " and lt trees "j is it not 
also plain that " in " shows a relation between the same 
word, "-fall," and "autumn "? They/a^from the trees, 
and they fall in the autumn — do they not? You see you 
will have to think a little to pick out the right words that 
are related to each other by the preposition : One of these 
words is always the word the proposition stands before, but 
the other word is sometimes placed some distance off. 



Written Exercise. 

1. Insert* suitable prepositionsin the followingsentences, 
and underscore the words that are related to each other 
by the prepositions. If you find that any word is related 
to two or more others, draw two or more lines under it, as 
the case may be. 

Models ; 

1. Little Bessie pulled the bean up the bill in her cart. 



2. Pussie plays with the ball. 

1. Do not play matches. 

2. His hand was torn pieces the bursting a pistol. 

3. There is a suspension bridge the East River. 

4. There is a tunnel the Thames. 



* " Insert " means to put in. 



90 A PlilMER OF LANGUAGE. 

2. I®* The preposition shows the relation between a noun 
or pronoun and some other word. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model ; 

Little Bessie pulled the bean up the hill in her cart. In this 
sentence "up" and " in" axe prepositions. " Up" shows- the relation 
between " pulled" and " hill," and " in" shows the relation between 
"pulled" and "cart," 

Repeat the above rule in concert. 



LESSON XV. 
The Preposition. 
Written Exercise. 
1. Complete the following by the use of prepositions. 
Underscore as in Lesson XIV : 

1. Snuff is made tobacco. 

2. Dates are the fruit ^the date palm. 

3. Snow lies the top the highest mountains the 

entire year. 

4. All the mine three were killed the explosion. 

5. Strawberry vines spread the ground rapidly. 

2. Compose five sentences, using the following prepo- 
sitions : between, below, behind, against, among. 

3. ASP" The preposition is a word placed before a noun (or 
pronoun) to show the latter's relation to some other word. 

Oral Exercise. 

Recite as in the preceding lesson. 

LESSON XVI. 

The Preposition. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Complete the following by the use of prepositions : 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE- 91 

1; Moles burrow the ground. v 

2. Turpentine is the sap the pine-tree. 

3, 12,000 people lost their lives Caracas the year 1812 

an earthquake. 

4. Columbus sailed Palos three small vessels. 

5, Alexander Selkirk was cast away the island Juan 

Fernandez, 

2. Compose five sentences, using the following preposi- 
tions : Into, after, before, beside, except. 

3. $W The preposition is a word placed before a noun (or 
pronoun) to show the tatter's relation to some other word. 

Oral Exercise. 

Recite as in Lesson XIV. 

LESSON XVII. 
The Conjunction. 
[To be read in class,] 

Susan had a goat* 
Mary had a dog. 

We may write these two sentences together, thus : 

Susan had a goat and Mary had a dog. 
In this hist sentence " and "joins together the two^ parts. 
Again, take the following sentences : 

Susan had a goat. 

Mary had a goat. 
We may write these together, thus : 
Susan and Mary each had a goat. 

In this last sentence u and v joins together the two names 
" Susan " and " Mary." " And ' ? is called a conjunction* 

Written Exercise. 
1. Complete the following sentences, using these " con- 
junctions " in their proper places, viz., and, but, if, because, 
or: 



* u Conjunction " means a joining together. 



92 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

1. Sarah may go riding Johnnie must stay home he has 

been cross. 

2. Lucy Lily may both go to grandma's. 

3. Which will you have, beef iamb ? 

4. I will take beef, you please. 

2. 1®" " Conjunetions"*are connecting -iv or ds. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

Susan had a goat and Mary had a dog. " And" is a connecting- 
word, or conjunction. 
Repeat the definition. 

LESSON XVIII. 
The Conjunction. 
Written Exercise. 
1. Complete the following sentences, using these con- 
junctions appropriately, viz., if, because* till : 

1. Catch me you can. 

2. He eats he is hungry. 

3. She slept the bell rang. 

2. Complete the following sentences, using these con- 
junctions appropriately, viz., after* before* although, 
until* when. 

1. We cannot go riding — you have learned your lessons. 

2. The chestnuts will fall frost comes. 

3. Look -, — you leap, 

4. The old lady took a nap she had dined. 

5. He kept bravely at work he felt sick. 

3. Compose live sentences, using the following conjunc- 
tions : And* if* when* though* but. 

4. %W " Conjunctions " are connecting-ivords. 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite as in preceding lesson. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 93 



LESSON XIX. 
The Conjunction. 
Written Exercise. 

1. Write three phrases like each of these : 

Beans and corn. 
Boys or girls. 

2. Write three sentences like this: 

The sun is up and the birds are singing. 

[Observe that in the first and second of the above 
examples, the conjunctions "and 7 ' and u or " connect 
single words; but in the third example, the conjunction 
u and 7 ' connects one group of words, u the sun is up," to 
another group of words, " the birds are singing. 7 '] 

3. Complete the following, and underscore the conjunc- 
tions, selecting such as you think appropriate from the 
following list: And, or, nor, but, unless, if, because, lest. 

1. Our^cousins came made us a visit. 

; 2, I will go you will. 

3. The builder fell off the house, he was not hurt much. 

4. Apples pears are abundant — - cheap. 

4. $W Conjunctions connect single words and groups of words. 

Oral Exercise. ™ 
Models ; 

1. Beans'" and corn. " And" is a conjunction. It connects " beans" 
to "corn." 

2 The sun is up and the birds are singing. " And" is a con- 
junction. It connects the group of words, " the sun is up," to the 
group of w T ords, " the birds are singing." 

Repeat the rule. 



94 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



LESSON XX. 

The Interjection. 
[To be read in class.] 

Alas ! birdie is dead. 
Papa, do not leave me. 

The words "alas" and u O ? ' are mere words of ex- 
clamation. They express feeling, or emotion, and so are 
sometimes called u emotion-words ". They are interjec- 
tions ; * aaid are so called because they do not combine 
with the other Parts of Speech to form sentences, and are 
therefore not properly parts of the sentence, but are words 
thrown into it — cries of strong or sudden feeling. Their 
presence in the sentence is much like the presence of 
spectators in congress — who are not members of the body, 
but only interested lookers-on — having no voice in the 
proceedings except to hiss and applaud. This is about 
what the inteijection does in the sentence. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Copy the following sentences, underscoring the "in- 
terjections." 

[Observe the exclamation-mark.] 

1. Hush ! don't waken the baby. 

2. Ha ! ha ! ha ! that is a capital story. 

3. I love thee, O my country. 

4. Hurrah ! we have triumphed, 

5. Oh ! I wish my tooth would stop aching. 

6. Ho ! I think I hear papa's footsteps. 

7. Aha ! sly Mr. Fox, I've caught you at last. 

2. SUF" " Interjections" are emotion -words. They usually 
require an exclamation-mark (!). 



1 Interjection" means a word thrown among* 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 95 

3. Compose five sentences introducing the following in- 
terjections : Holloa! ah! dear me! hark! behold! 

4. HT The interjection must always be written as a capital. 

Oral Exercise. 

Model : 

Alas ! birdie is dead. " Alas" is a word of exclamation, or an 
interjection. It is followed by an exclamation-mark. 

Repeat the two rules. 

LESSON XXI. 
Review: The Pronoun. 
Written Exercise. 
1. Correct the following sentences by substituting pro- 
nouns for the nouns that are improperly used : 

1. Willie drove Willie's dog to town. 

2. John and John's friend play pleasantly together. 

3. Mr. Jones fell into the river, but Mr. Jones's faithful dog saved 
Mr. Jones from drowning. 

2. HHTTlie "pronoun" is a siibstitute-ivord. 

3. In the following sentence, put in pronouns that will 
stand for the two faulty expressions. 

When the dog saw the dogs master coming, the dog was 
delighted. 

4. WT A pronoun stands for a noun. 

Oral Exercise. 
Models : 

1. John loves John's (log*. This^ is wrong. The pronoun his 

must be substituted for the noun " John's," thus : John loves his dog. 

2. Mi*. Jones told Mr. Jones's scholars that the scholars might 

go. This is wrong. The pronoun Ms must be substituted for the ex- 
pression " Mr. Jones's," and the pronoun they for the expression 
" the scholars," thus : Mr. Jones told his scholars that they might go. 
Repeat the two general statements. 



96 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

LESSON XXII. 

Review : The Pronoun. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Compose three sentences each containing a different 
one of the following pronouns : I, me, you* 

2. GF The pronoun "I" must always he written as a capital. 

3. Copy the following sentences, and underscore the 
pronouns : 

1 . I will take you with me. 

2. Did he give them his address ? 

3. We will drive our new horses over to your place to-morrow. 

4. They lifted their hats as we passed them. 

fin the following sentence, substitute one word for 
several.] 

5. My pretty little Maltese kitten runs to me when I call my 
pretty little Maltese kitten. 

4. ISP A pronoun often stands for a group of words. 

Oral Exercise. 

Models ; 

1. TVken my kitty mews, she means, u Minnie, I want some 
milk." " My," " she" and " I " are pronouns. 

2 The dog hit the dog's little master, while playing with the 
dog's little master. This is wrong. It should be, " The dog bit 

his little master, while playing with him." *' His" will then stand 
for " the dog's," and " him" will stand for " the dog's little master," 
Repeat the two rules. 



LESSON XXIII. 
Review : The Adverb v 
Written Exercise. 
1. In the following sentence, modify the verb by inserting 
an adverb : 

Birds fly . 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 97 

2. Compose three other similar sentences. 

3. In the following sentence, modify the adjective by in- 
serting an adverb : 

He made a pleasant call. 

4." Compose three other similar sentences. 

5. In the following sentence, modify the adverb by insert- 
ing another adverb: 

You must learn to speak politely, 

6. Compose three other similar sentences. 

7. I®" Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

Oral Exercise* 

Models : 

1. Puss creeps stealthily. " Stealthily" is an adverb. It modifies 
the verb " creeps," Adverbs sometimes modify verbs. 

2. Socrates was a truly wise man. " Truly" is an adverb. It 
modifies the adjective " wise, Adverbs sometimes modify adjectives. 

3. You eat too rapidly. " Too" is an adverb. It modifies the 
adverb " rapidly." Adverbs sometimes modify other adverbs. 

Repeat the rule. 



LESSON XXIV. 

Review : The Preposition. 

Written Exercise* 

1. In the following sentences, insert prepositions : 

(Observe that they are placed before the words they belong 

to.) 

1. I climbed a tree to escape — — the bear. 

2. The proof the padding is the eating. 

2. £IT " Preposition" means placed before* 

3. Show six different relations of a ball to the table by 
inserting six different prepositions in the following : 

1. There is a ball the table, 4, There is a ball the table. 

2. There Is a ball the table. 5. There is a ball the table. 

3. There is a ball the table. 6- There is a ball the table. 



98 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

4. *£if~ " Prepositions " are relation- words. 

5. Complete the following by the use of prepositions : 
America was discovered — - Columbus the year 1492, 

6. ilSF 5 The "preposition" is a word placed before a noun 
(or pronoun) to shoiu the relation of the latter to some other 
word. 

Oral Exercise. 
Models : 

1 The seal escaped through the ice. "Through" is a preposi- 
tion* It is placed before the noun "ice." 

[Repeat the first general statement of the lesson]. 

2. A mouse lives in the ham. A mouse lives under the ham. 
A mouse lives near the foarn. " In," " under" and " near" are pre- 
positions. They show three different relations of " lives" to "barn," 

[Repeat the second general statement of the lesson]. 

8. An owl ilew into the tree. "Into" is a preposition. It is 
placed before the noun " tree" to show the relation of the latter to 
"flew." 

[Repeat the third general statement of the lesson]. 



LESSON XXV. 

Review : The Conjunction. 

Written Exercise. 

1, Connect the following sentences together by a con- 
junction, so as to form them into one sentence, leaving 
out unnecessary words : 

Mary has a pony. Mary has a phaeton. 

2. Treat the following in a similar way : 

Charles cannot eat. Charles cannot sleep. 

3 §y " Conjunctions " are connecting-ivords. 

4. Connect the following sentences by means of a con- 
junction, thus making one sentence : 

He broke through the ice. They managed to get him out. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 99 

5. Connect the following similarly : 

Baby crows. Baby laughs. 

6. &£T Conjunctions connect single words and groups of words. 

Oral Exercise. 

Models : 

1. The sailor had a monkey. 
The sailor had a parrot. 

The sailor had a monkey and a parrot. " And" is a conjunction, 
It connects " monkey'' with " parrot." 

[Repeat the first general statement of the lesson]. 

2. The horse ran away because he was frightened. " Because" 
is a conjunction. It connects together the two groups of words, " the 
horse ran away" and " he was frightened.". 

[Repeat the second general statement of the lesson]. 



LESSON XXVI. 

Review : The Interjection. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Express emotion by inserting interjections in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

1. ! he will never return. 

2, — — ! to-morrow is a holiday. 

2. 3Sf Interjections are emotion-words. They usually re- 
quire an exclamation mark. 

3. Insert appropriate interjections in the following : 

1 . , what a lovely day it was ! 

2. ! Don't make the least noise. 

3. ! Did you hear that sound ? 

4. I®* The interjection u 0" must always he written as a 
capital. 

5. Compose five sentences using each of the following 
interjections : 

Holloa! Oh! Ha, Ha! Hurrah! See! Mark! 



100 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercise. 
Models ; 

1, Hark ! was that the baby crying % " Hark" is an interjection, 
or emotion-word. It is followed by an exclamation mark. 

[Repeat the first general statement of the lesson]. 

2. I am sorry, mamma, that you cannot come. " O " is an 

interjection. It must be a capital. 

[Repeat the second general statement of the lesson]. 



LESSON XXVII. 
Summary of Rules, Definitions and Principles. 
[To be studied and recited,'] 

1. The pronoun is a substitute-word. 

The pronoun is what ? 

2. A pronoun stands for a noun. 
It stands for what ? 

3. The pronoun " I " must always be written as a capi- 
tal. 

Give the rule for writing the pronoun "I." 

4. The pronoun often stands for a group of words. 
The pronoun often stands for what else besides a noun ? 

5. Words that modify verbs are called adverbs. 
Words that modify verbs are called what ? 

6. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. 
Adverbs modify what? 

7. Prepositions are relation-words. 
Prepositions are what kind of words ? 

8. " Preposition " means placed before. 
" Preposition " means what ? 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 101 

9. The preposition shows the relation between a noun 
or pronoun and some other word. 

The preposition shows what ? 

10. The preposition is a word placed before a noun (or 
pronoun) to show the latter ? s relation to some other word. 

Define the preposition in full. 

11. Conjunctions are connecting-words. 
Conjunctions are what kind of words ? 

12. Conjunctions connect single words and groups of 
words. 

Conjunctions connect what ? 

13. Interjections are emotion-words. 
Interjections are what kind ot words. 

14. The interjection i4 " must always be written as a 
capital. 

Give the rule for writing the interjection " O." 

Written Examination. 

1. The pronoun is what kind of a word ? Give example. 

2. The pronoun stands for what ? 

3. Give rule about writing the pronoun " I. ,J 

4. Does the pronoun always stand for a single word ? 
Explain. 

5. Adverbs do what ? Give example. 

6. The word " preposition •■ means what ? Why is it so 
called? 

7. The preposition is what kind of a word ? 

8. Define the preposition in full. 



102 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE, 

9. Give example of a preposition in a sentence, 

10. The conjunction is what kind of a word. 

11. Conjunctions do what? Give example. 

12. The interjection is what kind of a word ? It usually 
requires what mark ? Give example. 

13. Give rule about writing the interjection " O." 



LESSON XXIX. 
A Bird's Eye View * 
[To be committed to memory.] 

There are in English eight kinds or classes of words, 
called 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

1. Noun. 2. Verb. 3. Pronoun. 4. Adjective. 

5. Adverb. 6. Preposition. 7. Conjunction. 8. Interjection. 

A noun is the name of anything. 

A verb generally declares something about a noun (or 
pronoun.) 

A pronoun generally stands for a noun : it often stands 
for a group of words. 

An adjective generally describes a noun. 

An adverb modifies a verb, adjective or another adverb. 



* To the teacher. No pupil should be allowed to pass this lesson until able 
to recite it satisfactorily 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 103 

A preposition shows the relation of a noun or a pro- 
noun to some other word. 

A conjunction connects words together. 

An interjection expresses emotion. 

Nouns are name-words. 
Most verbs are assertion-words. 
Pronouns are substitute-words. 
Adjectives are quality-words. 
Adverbs are mode- words. 
Prepositions are relation-words.*! 
-Conjunctions are connecting- words. 
Interjections are emotion- words. 



?.- ,-•?- 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 105 

OHAPTEE V. 

SUB-CLASSES OF WORDS. 



LESSON I. 
Nouns ; Common and Proper. 
[To be read in class.*] 

Suppose you were set down all of a sudden, as if by 
magic, in a busy street of the City of New York, without 
knowing what city it was, or any person in it. Looking 
around, you might say, "This is a street." Yon would 
know it was not a river, or a canal, or a meadow, or a 
country road. You would know it to be street from its re- 
semblance to other streets you had seen— from its appear- 
ance, its characteristics, its nature. Walking along the 
thoroughfare, and looking up and down the various cross- 
streets as you passed them, and seeing them stretching 
far'away in both directions, and built up solidly with 
houses, you might say, u This is a city'' You would know 
it to be a city from. its resemblance to other cities you had 
seen— from its appearance, its characteristics, its nature. 
You might safely say that the people moving about were 
men and women, boys and girls, because they appeared to 
have the nature of men and women, boys and girls, and 
not the nature of sheep, goats, dogs, or cattle. The animals 
harnessed to carts, trucks, omnibuses, street-cars, wagons, 
&c, you would call horses for the same reason. If you 
were to go down to the water-side, you would see many 
vessels — here a ship, a sloop, a schooner, a brig, a yacht ; 



* See note on page 1. 



106 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

there a steamer, a tug, a ferryboat ; yonder a lighter, a 
barge, a row-boat ; all of which you might, if you had 
studied, or read, or heard about such things, call properly 
by name, though you had never seen one of them before. 

Now every one of all these various objects — this city, 
these streets, these men and women, boys and girls, these 
horses, these vessels of whatever kind — have every one of 
them a particular name which was given to it by somebody 
to distinguish * it from all others of its kind. Thus, the 
city is New York ; this street is Broadway ; that man's 
name is John ; that woman's name is Mary ; that steamer 
is The Fulton ; this ship is The Flying Cloud; yonder 
horse's name is Billy ; and so on. 

These particular, or special names you could not tell in 
a single instance unless some one that knew should first 
tell you. 



LESSON II. 

Nouns ; Common and Proper. 

[To be read in class ] 

You see then that these names — city, street, man, 
woman, horse, ship, &c, are a very different kind of name 
from New York, Broadway, John, Mary, Billy, Flying 
Cloud, &c. The former kind we might call natural names, 
because they are the names that belong to them on account 
of their nature — names which any intelligent person would 
know the first time he should see them, without being told. 
The latter kind we might call given-names, because each 
one is the name that somebody has given to that particular 
person or thing, and which nobody could know until he 
was told. These natural names are not so called, I am 
sorry to say. You must learn to call them common names, 



i To " distinguish " here means to set apart. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 107 

or common nouns; while the given-names you must learn 
to call proper-names, or proper-noillISo Common nouns 
are so called because the name is common to all objects of 
the same kind*; as for example, the name dog belongs to 
every animal of that kind, or class, the world over. This 
makes common nouns a class-\\<ime — a name that belongs 
to all objects of that classA 

Proper pnouns are so called because they are oww-naines, 
or particular mimes of the persons or things that have 
them. 

To sum up the matter: 

A a coimnon " noun is a general name, a class name, a 
natural name. 

A " proper " noun is a particular name, an own~ name, a 
given name. 

Oral Exercise. 

Repeat the first of the above definitions in concert. Give examples 
of common nouns, and state why you think they are common. 

Repeat the second definition in concert. Give examples of proper 
nouns, and state why you think they are proper. 



LESSON III. 
Nouns : Common and Proper. 
[To be read in class.] 
If all the persons in the world that are named " John " 



* That is, belongs to all alike. 

j- Things that resemble each other are, when considered together, called a class. 
Thus, boys and girls that resemble each other in studying language together are 
called The Language Class; those that resemble each other in studying spelling 
together are called The, Spelling Class, and so on. Animals that resemble each 
other in a certain way are called dogs ,* so we say that dogs are a class of animals. 
Horses are another class of animals. Chairs are a class of furniture j desks an- 
other class of furniture. Maples are a class of trees 5 willows another class of 
trees ; and so on. 

\ Latin, propriusj one's own. 



108 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

were assembled together, they would make a pretty large 
crowd ! and you would think that " John ,? was a pretty 
" common " name. You would think too that it might 
properly be called a " class "-name, from the size of the 
class # that bore it. But in the grammatical sense of the 
term it could not be so called. It would not be a name 
that any person would have on account of his nature, but 
because it was given him by somebody. 

When a chair comes from the factory, it does not require 
anybody to name it; it names itself. Its attributes, its 
qualities, its nature name it. When a child is born, its 
nature tells us that it is a baby, but whether its particular 
name is to be " John," or " Mary," or u Sarah," or "James" 
is uncertain until the name is given to it. 

Written Exercise. 
Copy the following general statements three times each : 

ggf~A " common " noun is a general mime, a class-name, a 
natural name—a name common to every ineinher of a class of 
tilings. 

2HPA *' proper " noun is a particular name, an oivn-name, 
a given name— a name given to one member of a class of things 
to distinguish it from the rest. 

HW A proper noun must always begin with a capital. 

■ Oral Exercise. 

Repeat the above general statements in concert. Give examples 
as in preceding oral exercise. Practice on boards and slates writing 
lists of common and of proper nouns, being careful not to begin 
common nouns w T itk capitals. 



* Remark to the teacher ; That this multitude of " Johns " would constitute 
a class is plain, for they would resemble each other in bearing the name of John. 
This example illustrates the objectionableness of the current definition of a 
common noun. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 109 

LESSON IV. 
Nouns: Common and Proper. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Write five common mimes of men, as citizen, voter, 
merchant, poet. 

2. Write five proper names of men, as Charles, Wash- 
ington. 

3. Write five common names of women, as wife, com- 
panion, clerk, teacher. 

4. Write five proper names of women. 

5. Write five common names of boys. 

6. Write five proper names of boys. 

7. Write five common names of girls. 

8. Write five proper names of girls. 

9. £^" A u coiniiioii " noun is a general name, a class name, 
a natural name. 

10. S^" A " proper 59 noun is a particular name, an own 
name, a given name. 

Oral Exercise. 
Models ; 

1. " Citizen " is a common noun, because it is a general name, or 
class-name, or natural name. 

2. " Charles " is a, proper noun, because it is a, particular name, or 
own-name, or given name. It must, therefore, begin with a capital. 

Repeat the two definitions in concert. 



LESSON V. 

Surnames. 
[To be read in class.] 

Now-a-days everbody lias at least a double name, as, 
Henry Clay, Daniel Webster ; some liave triple names, as, 
John Quincy Adams, William Gullen Bryant ; and some 
have a still more extended name. The last word in every- 



110 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

one's name is, you know, the family name. Ifc belongs to 
father, mother, brothers and sisters alike. The father, 
perhaps, is John Jones, the mother Mary Jones, the brothers 
Thomas Jones and William Jones, the sisters Sarah Jones 
and Anna Jones. (i Jones," in this case, is the family 
name.* The family name is called the surname. 

Written Exercise, 

1. Write the fall names of twenty persons you know, or 
have heard of, and underscore eacli surname. (Do not 
repeat.) 

2. 2S" The family name is called the surname. 

Oral Exercise. 

Model : 

John Quincy Adams. In this name, " Adams " is the family 
name, or surname. Each part must begin with the capital, because 
it is a given name. 

Repeat the above general statement in concert. 



LESSON VI. 

Christian Names. 
[To be read in class.] 

Every American child, while very young, has a particu- 
lar name given to it, as Mary, Mary Jane, John, John Quincy. 
This is its given name, or owil-name. The giving of this 
name is, among christians, usually accompanied with bap- 
tism, and so it is sometimes called the baptismal name. 
As baptism is a christian ceremony, or custom, it is called 
the christian name. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Write the full names of twenty persons you know, or 



* The family name is properly a given name — given to all the members of 
the family by the present custom of society. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. Ill 

Lave heard of, and underscore each christian name. (Do 
not repeat.) 

2. One's given name is called one's christian name. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

Florence Nightingale, In this name, " Florence " is the bap- 
tismal, or christian name. Each part must begin with the capital, 
because it is a given name. 

Repeat the general statement. 



LESSON VII. 

Christian Names and Surnames. 

Written Exercise. 

Copy the following, correcting all errors. Draw one 

line under every christian name, and two lines under every 

surname : 

1. George Washington. 16. William cullen Bryant, 

2. Christopher columbus. 17. queen victoria, 

3. president Lincoln. 18. Alexander Hamilton. 

4. Amerigo Vespucci. 19. William Lloyd Garrison. 

5. Robert fulton. 20, Napoleon Bonaparte. 

6. thomas Jefferson. 21. patrick henry. 

7. william penn. 22. ralph waldo Emerson. 

8. general grant. 23. Henry W. longfellow. 

9. John quincy adams, 24 admiral Farragut. 

10. Henry clay, 25. Robert E. Lee. 

11. secretary Seward, 2Q, Nathaniel Hawthorne. 

12. Daniel webster. 27, Washington Irving. 

13. De Witt Clinton. 28. William H. Prescott. 

1 4. James K, Polk 29. Martin Van Buren. 

15. Horace greeley, 30. Benjamin franklin. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model ; 

Alexander Hamilton, In this name, " Alexander " is the bap- 
tismal, or christian name, and " Hamilton " is the family name, or 



112 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



surname. Each part must begin with the capital, because it is a 
given name. 

Repeat in concert the definitions of Lesson IV. 



LESSON VIII. 
Nouns: Common and Proper. 
[To be read in class.] 

The first day of the week lias a particular name,-" Sun- 
day/' given to it to distinguish it from other days of the 
week; and so the rest. The first month of the year has a 
particular name, " January," given to it to distinguish it 
from other months of the year; and so the rest. Cer- 
tain days of the year, set apart as holidays, have particular 
names given to them to distinguish them from other 
days, as Christmas, Fourth of July, &c. These names of 
the days of the week, of the months, and of holidays, are 
therefore proper nouns, and must begin with capitals. 



Written Exercise* 
1. Copy the following, correcting all errors 



mary 


march 


June 


September 


Christmas 


monday 


delaware 


lillian 


Wednesday 


thanksgiving day 


tuesday 


willie 


Florida 


thursday 


new year's day 


john 


Easter 


Chicago 


franklin 


Boston 


January 


april 


July 


friday 


fourth of July 


sunday 


february 


May 


august 


Pacific 


atlantic 


October 


novembei 


december 


Saturday 



2. &T The names of the days of the week, of the months, and 
of holidays are proper names. 

Oi'al Exercise. 
Models ; 

1. Mary. This is a proper noun, because it is a given name; it 
must therefore begin with a capital. 

2. Fourth of July. This is a proper noun, because it is a given 
name ; its two important parts " Fourth " and " July " must there- 
fore both begin with capitals. 

Repeat the above rule in concert. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



113 



LESSON IX. 

Nouns: Common and Proper. 
[To be read in class.] 

A common noun, when used as a proper name, or 
part of a proper name, is changed to a proper noun. Thus, 
in Hudson River. Rocky Mountains, Washington County, 
Main Street, the common nouns river, mountains, county, 
street are changed to proper nouns by each becoming a 
part of a proper name, and must therefore begin with a 
capital. 

Ill the same way adjectives, when they go to form proper 
names are changed to proper nouns ; as green, black, deep, 
in Green Mountains, Black Creek and Deep River. 



Copy the ft 

lake superior. 
Atlantic ocean. 
Rifton mill. 
Erie canal, 
long island, 
north America, 
fourth of July, 



Written Exercise. 

allowing, correcting the errors : 



Alleghany ms. 
Jersey city, 
great Miami, 
sleepy hollow, 
cape cod. 
east Lynn. 



water st. 
Monmouth co. 
little falls, 
pleasant valley, 
bay of Biscay, 
red river. 



thanksgiving day. good Friday, 
western hemisphere, 



Lincoln ave, 
Fishkill village, 
Milton landing, 
big sandy, 
gulf of Mexico. 
pictured rocks, 
decoration day. 



Oral Exercise. 
Models : 

1, Water St.* This is a proper name, and therefore both parts of 
it must begin with capitals. 

2. Gulf of Mexico, This is a proper name, and therefore its two 
important parts " Gulf" and '* Mexico" must both begin with capi- 
tals. 

Repeat the definitions of Lesson IV. and the rule of Lesson VIII. 



* This shortened form (" St."j for Street is called an abbreviation. It is ex- 
plained in chapter VI. 



114 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



LESSON X. 

A Drill Lesson. 

[To be recited or ally. 1 

Explain the examples of Lesson IX. according to tbe 
following 
Models : 

1. Lake Superior, "Lake " is usually a common noun, because 
it is a natural name ; but in the present case it is a proper noun, be- 
cause it is given to a particular body of water. " Superior"* is'usu- 
ally an adjective ; but in the present case it is a proper noun, be- 
cause it is given, as a name, to a particular, body of water. 

2. Allegliauy Ms. " Alleghany " is & proper noun, because it is a 
given name. " Ms." + is usually a common noun, because it is a na- 
tural name ; but in the present case it is a proper noun, because it is 
given to a particular range of land. 



LESSON XL 

The Verb. 
[ To be read in class.] 

(a) (b) 

1. Bakers eat. 1. Bakers make 

2. He sleeps. 2. He took . 



3. Birds fly. 3. Birds build 

4. Postmen walk. 4. Postmen bring 

5. Children laugh. 5. Children break 

6. Mary sweeps. 6. Mary likes 



The expressions in list (a) are all perfect sentences. 
They are very short, but each one contains a subject and 
a predicate, and makes sense. The expressions in list (b), 
however, are none of them sentences. Each one contains, 
like those in list (a), a noun and a verb, but they do not 
make sense. To make sentences of them, another word 
must be added. 



* " Superior " means higher, greater* 
f See note on page 113. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 115 

Written Exercise. 

1. Copy the above examples, completing the sentences 
in list (6). 

2. Compose six other sentences of each kind. 

Oral Exercise. 

Models ; 

1. Bakers eat. This is a perfect sentence, because it contains a 
subject and predicate, and makes sense. 

2. Bakers make . This is not a perfect sentence, because it 

does not make sense. Another word must be added, as Bakers 
make bread. 



LESSON XII. 

The Vekb. 
[To be read in class,] f 

We learned in Lesson XVII. Chapter II., that a verb 
generally declares, or asserts something about a noun or 
a pronoun. In the last Lesson we saw that there are two 
kinds of verbs.* In one of these kinds, the verb makes a 
perfect assertion along with the subject, while in the other 
kind, the assertion is not perfect without the aid of at 
least one more word. 

In the sentence, John laughs, the assertion made by the 
verb begins and ends in John ; but in the sentence, John 
likes candy, the assertion made by the verb begins in John, 
but it ends in candy. Verbs of this latter kind are called 
transitive t verbs, and sentences that contain them are 
called transitive sentences. Verbs of the former kind are 
called intransitive J verbs, and sentences that contain 
them are called intransitive sentences. The added word, 
" candy," is called the Object. 



* You will learn by and by that there are other kinds also, 
j- From a Latin word which means going over, as if the action of the verb 
went over in part from the subject to the object. 
t " Intransitive " means not transitive. 



116 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

LESSON XIII. 
Transitive Verbs. 
Written Exercise* 

1. Add objects to the following phrases, and thus make 
them transitive sentences : 

1. The horse broke . (broke what ?) 

2, Father called . (called whom ?) 

3. Watches keep . 8 The teacher punished . 

4. Oxen draw . 9. Columbus discovered . 

5. The rain drenched . 10. Charlie wrote . 

6. Snow covers . 11. The mother loves , 

7. John struck - — . 12. Wise people avoid , 

2. ZW " Transitive " verbs are tliose that must have an 
object. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model ; 

Jolin likes . This is a phrase. To make it a sentence, add the 

word candy to the predicate, thus : John likes candy. 
Repeat the above definitions in concert. 



LESSON XIV. 
Intransitive Verbs. 
Written Exercise. 

1. Fill the following blanks, thus making intransitive 
sentences. (Do not repeat) : 

1. fly. 9. smile. 17, laughs. 

2. shine. 10, play. 18. croak. 

3. walk, 11. soar. 19. neigh, 

4, trot. 12. spring. 20. bellow. 

5. talks, 13. swim, 21. giggle. 

6. sing. 14. roost. 22. crow. 

7. screams. 15. ~ — grow. 23, crouch 

8. bleat. 16. — bloom, 24. purr. 

2. 805" " Intransitive " verbs are those that have no object. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 117 

Oral Exercise. 

Model : 

Children frolic. This is an intransitive sentence, because its verb 
" frolic " has no object. 

Repeat the above general statement. 

LESSON XV. 

Transitive and Intransitive Sentences. 
Written Exercise. 

1. Select from the following list all the transitive verbs, 
and make transitive sentences with them ; then make in- 
transitive sentences with the intransitive verbs; and 
separate subject from predicate in every sentence by a 
vertical line. 

gallop, twinkle, hears, rises, watched, broke, writes, 
build, found, swim, rejoice, sleep, whisper, taught. 

Model : 

T)*ansitive Sentences. 

Napoleon | crossed the Alps. 
Whitney | invented the cotton-gin. 
Galileo | made the first telescope. 
&c, &c. 

Intransitive Sentences. 

Rome | fell. 
Doctors | disagree. 
The breakers | roar, 

[Observe that, in every one of the intransitive sentences 
you have written in the above exercise, the predicate con- 
sists of one word, viz., the verb; while in every one of the 
transitive sentences the predicate consists of at least two 
words, viz., the verb audits object,] 

2. &P A transitive sentence is one whose verb has an object. 

3. $W An intransitive sentence is one whosejverb has no object. 



118 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercise. 

Models : 

1. Napoleon crossed the Alps. This is a transitive sentence, be- 
cause its verb " crossed" has an object, " the Alps." The subject 
of the sentence is " Napoleon," and the predicate is " crossed the 
Alps." 

2. Home fell. This in an intransitive sentence, because its verb 
" fell" has no object. The subject of the sentence is " Rome" and 
the predicate is " fell " 

Repeat the two general statements of the lesson. 



LESSON XVI. 
Verbs ; Transitive and Intransitive. 
[To oe read in cIogs*] 

Intransitive Sentences. Transitive Sentences. 

Horses drink. Horses drink water. 

Boys whittle. Boys whittle sticks. 

Girls knit. Girls knit stockings. 

From the above examples, it appears that the same verb 
is sometimes transitive and sometimes intransitive. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Compose five instransitive and five transitive sen- 
tences like the above. (Do not repeat.) 

2. WT Many verbs may be used either transitively or intransi- 
tively. 

Oral Exercise. 

Models ; 

1. Horses drink. This is an intransitive sentence, because its 
verb " drink" has no object 

2. Horses drink water. This is a transitive sentence, because its 
verb " drink" has an object, " water." 

Repeat the rule of the lesson. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 119 



LESSON XVII. 
Verbs of Incomplete Predication. 
[To be read in class,} 

I am welh We are here* 

Mary was absent. The hoys were rude. 

Baby is happy. He feels troubled. 

James became angry.* The dog appears sick. 

Iii the above examples we see another kind of verb. 
They do not require an object like transitive verbs, nor is 
their meaning complete without another word, like most 
intransitive verb;*. They are called by a long, hard name 
— intransitive verbs of incomplete predication. There are 
only a few of them ; but they are very important, because 
they are in constant use. 

Written Exercise* 

Compose three sentences like each of the above. (Do 

not repeat.) 

Oral Exercise. 

Model: 

I am weU. " Am" is an intransitive verb of incomplete predica- 
tion — " intransitive" because it has no object, and " of incomplete 
predication" because its meaning is incomplete without another word, 
as " well." 

Repeat the hard name of the verb in concert. 



LESSON XVIII. 

Adjectives : The Article. 
[To be read in class,] 

If I should say to you, " I bought my shoes at an old 
store," you would be at a loss to know at what particular 
place I bought them ; but if we both lived in a village 
where there was only one old store, or, if there was a par- 



120 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

ticular store which you and I knew about and which we 
called " the old store," and if, under these circumstances, 
I should say to you, " I bought my shoes at theold store,' 7 
you would understand exactly where 1 obtained them. 

Again : if I were to say to you, u I have caught an owl," 
you would not think of any particular owl, but only of the 
fact that I had caught some one owl. If I had said, "I 
have caught the owl," you would have understood a 
particular owl that we had before talked about, one that 
we had noticed flying about the premises perhaps, and had 
not been able to catch. 

By these examples you see that there is a wide differ- 
ence between " an " and " the ; " that "an 7 ' is general, 
uncertain, indefinite ; while u the " is particular, precise, 
definite 

Written Exercise* 



" An " is called the indefinite article ; " the " is called the 
definite article. 



LESSON XIX. 

The Article. 
Written Exercise. 

1. Write five phrases consisting of the indefinite article 
" an, " along with an adjective and a noun; as, an ugly 
bear. 

2. Write five phrases consisting of the definite article 
M the," along with an adjective and a noun ; as, the beauti- 
ful snow. 

3. Change the following indefinite phrases into definite 

ones : 

1. An open winter, 6 An ostrich. 

2. An active brain. 7. An empty barrel. 

3. An excellent appetite 8. An eloquent speaker. 

4. An hour-glass. 9. An industrious pupil. 

5. An amiable disposition. 10. An astral lamp. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 121 

4. 2®"" An" is general, uncertain, indefinite. " The " is 
particular, precise, definite. 

Oral Exercise. 

Models : 

1. An ugly bear. " An" is the indefinite article, " ugly" is an 
adjective, and " bear" is a noun. 

2. The beautiful snow. " The" is the definite article, " beauti- 
ful" is an adjective, and %i snow" is a noun. 

3. An open winter. This is an indefinite phrase. It is changed 
to a definite one thus : The open winter. 

Repeat the general statement of the lesson. 



LESSON XX. 
The Indefinite Article. 
[To be read in class,] 
Take the expression, 

in ox. 
If we wished to describe the word " ox " a little, we 
might put the word patient before it : we should then have 
the expression, 

A patient ox. 
If we wished to describe it further, we might introduce 
the word old : the phrase would then become, 

An old, patient ox. 

And if we wished to describe it still further, we might 
slip in the word faithful, which would give us this : 

A faithful, old, patient ox. 

Have you observed something curious about the four 
gradually enlarging phrases ? When we added the word 
u patient " to the first phrase, "an" changed itself to 
w a,'' and, instead of u an ox," we had the phrase, 

A patient ox. 

Then, when we added " old," 4< a" changed back to 



122 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

" an," and we bad the phrase, 

An old, patient ox. 

And finally when we added " faith fill," " an " changed 
to u a " again, and we had the phrase, 

A faithful, old, patient ox. 

Observe that we did not propose to change " an " to 
" a," or " a '' to " an." They changed themselves. Let us 
now try to find out why these little words behave so 
curiously. 

We say, a boy, an egg; a plum, an orange; a man, an 
ape; a sparrow, aw owl; a lazy boy, an industrious girl; 
a faithful pupil, an unfaithful pupil. In all these and 
every similar case, s \ an " and u a " mean the same thing 
— they both mean one — one boy, one egg, one plum, and so 
on. Then why not use one of them in all cases and drop 
the other? What need of both? Let us see. In the 
above example^ suppose we change every Li an " to " a " 
and every il a " to u an." We shall then have, an boy, a 
egg; an plum, a orange ; aw man, a ape; an sparrow, a 
owl; an lazy boy, a industrious girl; an faithful pupil, a 
unfaithful pupil. 

What is the matter with the above phrases? Simply 
this — they are not so easy to speak as the others ; they do 
not flow so smoothly from the mouth : and that is just the 
reason why the others are used. li An" and " a " mean 
the same thing; nevertheless we never put one of them 
for the other. 



LESSON XXI. 
The Origin of the Word " A ." 
[To be read in class,] 

You doubtless laughed at the expressions " an boy,'' 
u an plum," " an man" in the preceding Lesson, and you* 
will be surprised to learn that they used to be correct 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 123 

forms. That is the way our ancestors spoke, hundreds of 
years ago. When the English language first began to 
take the form it now has, the article a did not exist. It 
crept into the language afterward. People found it easier 
to say a book, than to say an book ; and so the " n " came 
gradually to be dropped from " an " before certain words, 
and that is just the way the word a was born. Perhaps 
you are wondering why it is easier to say a book than it is 
to say an book, or to say an apple, than it is to say a apple. 
I will tell you. 

In the phrase, a book, the consonant u b " stands next 
the vowel " a " ; and the sounds represented by these two 
letters blend,* or flow together smoothly. On the other 
hand, in the phrase, an book, the consonant u b" stands 
next another consonant 4 * n "; and the sounds represented 
by these two letters interfere with each other ; they do not 
blend easily ; and that is what we mean when we say that 
one of these forms is more easily spoken than the other is. 
Thus we get the following rule : 

Written Exercise. 

BOP" Use " an " before a vowel-sound, and u a " before a eon- 
sonant- sound.f 

LESSON XXII. 

The Indefinite Article. 
Written Exercise. 
1. In the following phrases, introduce adjectives that 
will change every " a " to " an, 7 ' and every *' an ? ' to " a '': 
thus, 

1. A book. An interesting book, 

2. An owl. A sleepy owl, 

* " Blend" means to mix s 

f Observe the rule says, " Use * an ' before a vowel- sound, and ' a ' before a 
consonant-5o«»^." It does not say, " Use ■ an ' before a vowel, and ' a ' before 
a consonant." Notice the reason. We say a horse, but not a hour, though 
u horse " and " hour " both begin with the same consonant h. But the first 
sound in " hour " is a vowel-sound, the h being silent. So we must say an hour, 
according to the rule, " Use an before a vowel-sound" 



124 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

An oyster ; a toy ; an ear ; a tongue ; an eye ; a mouth ; 
an egg ; a peach ; an apple ; a pear ; an oak ; a hickory ; 
an ox; a horse; an arm ; a foot; an owl; a book; an 
eagle ; a bear. 

2. 113^ Remember that the article is a kind of adjective. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

A book. An interesting book. " An " or " a " is the indefinite 
article. Use " an " before a vowel-sound, and " a " before a conson- 
ant sound. 

Repeat the definition of the lesson, 

LESSON XX1IL 
The Definite Article. 
[To be read in class,] 

The brave fireman | saved a child. 

In the above example, the definite article which begins 
the sentence points out that some particular fireman is 
meant— one previously spoken of. The sentence is very 
nearly equivalent* to the following: 

That brave fireman saved a child. 

In fact the word li the ,? is formed from the adjective 
that, just as u a " is formed from il an." 

Written Exercise. 

1. Compose ten sentences each composed, like the above 
example, of the definite article, an adjective, a noun, and 
a transitive verb with its object. 

2. HT The definite article u the " is another form of the adjec- 
tive that . 

Oral Exercise. 
Model ; 

The brave fireman saved a child. " The " is the definite article : 
it is another form of the adjective that. 

Repeat the above definition. 



* See note on p. 88, 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 125 

LESSON XXIV. 

Proper Adjectives. 
[To be read in class.] 

The Eastern States. A European war. 

Some Turkish prunes. These English walnuts. 

In each of the above, phrases, the second word is an 
adjective because it describes the noun following it.* 
Why do all these adjectives begin with capitals, like 
proper nouns ? Because they are proper adjectives. 
They are formed from proper nouns; and, like proper 
nouns, must begin with the capital. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Write ten phrases like the above. 

2. &T Adjectives formed from proper nouns are called proper 
adjectives. They must begin with the capital. 

Oral Exercise. 

Model ; 

Some Turkish prunes. " Turkish " is an adjective, because it 
describes " prunes " : it is a proper adjective, because it is formed 
from the proper noun, Turkey, the particular name of a country, 

Repjeat the general statement of the lesson. 



LESSON XXV. 

, Review : Nouns, Common and Proper. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Write ten natural- names, or names which things have 
on account of their nature. These are common 110UH3. [£>o 
not begin theui with capitals.] 

2. 8QP" A " common " noun is a general name, a class -name, 
a natural name. It is caUed u common " because it belongs to 
evet*y member of a class of things. 



* See Lessons XII. and XIIL, Chapter II 



126 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

3. Write ten given names, or names which persons and 
places have had given to them, in order to distinguish * 
them from all others of their kind. These are proper 
nouns. 

4. fi^*A " proper "f noun is a particular name, an oivn* 
name, a given name. 

5. Write five common (or class) names of boys; five 
proper (or own) names of boys; five common (or class) 
names of girls ; five proper (or own) names of girls; the 
name of the first month ; the name of the first day of the 
Aveek. 

Oral Exercise. 
Models ; 

1 . Horse. This is a common noun, because it is a natural name, 
or name which a certain animal has on account of his nature. It is 
called common, because this name belongs to every animal of that 
kind. 

2. Boy. This is a common noun, because it is a natural name, or 
name which a certain being has on account of his nature. It is called 
common because this name belongs to every being of that hind. 

3. Tree. This is a common-noun, because it is a natural name, or 
name which a certain object has on account of its nature. It is called 
common because this name belongs to every object of that kind. 

[Repeat the first definition of the lesson.] 

4. Rover. This is a proper noun, because it is a given name, or 
name which this dog had given to it in order to distinguish it from 
every other dog, " Proper " means own. 

[Repeat the second definition of the lesson.] 

LESSON XXVI. 
Review : Surnames and Christian Names. 
Written Exercise. 
1, Write Hie full names of ten girls and often boys, and 
underscore each surname. 



* For meaning of" distinguish " see page 106. 
•(•See third note on page 107. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 127 

2. E^" The family-name is called the surname. 

3. Write the full names of ten girls and often boys, and 
underscore each Christian name. (Do not repeat.) 

4. $W The given name is called the Christian name. 

Oral Exercise. 

Models ; 

1. Jennie Lind. In this name, "Lind" is the family-name, or, 
surname. 

Repeat the first general statement of the lesson. 

2. Alexander Humboldt. In this name, "Alexander" is the given 
name, or Christian name. 

Repeat the second general statement of the lesson. 

LESSON XXVII. 

Review Lesson VIIL, page 112. 

LESSON XXVIII. 
Review Lesson IX., page 113. 

LESSON XXIX. 
Review Lesson X., page 114. 

LESSON XXX. 

Review : The Verb— Transitive and Intransitive. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Select the transitive verbs from the following list, and 

write them in a column ; then select the intransitive verbs, 

and write them in another column. There are ten of each. 

sparkles giggle gallop chirp brought studies hurt 
squirm saw broke tremble rise fell caught 

laugh drive helped heard make die. 

2 gggp « Transitive " verbs are those that must have an 
object. 

3. SSF" " Intransitive " verbs are those that have no object. 



128 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercise. 

Models : 

1. Likes. This is a transitive verb, because it must have an object ; 
as, the kitten likes milk. 

Repeat the first definition of the lesson. 

2. Laugli. This is an intransitive verb, because it has no object ; 
as, can a cat laugh ? 

Repeat the second definition of the lesson. 



LESSON XXXI. 

-Review: Transitive and Intransitive Sentences. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Compose ten transitive sentences, and ten intransitive 
sentences. 

2. HSF" A "transitive" sentence is one whose verb has an 
object. 

3. t^~ An " intransitive " sentence is one whose verb has no 
object. 

4. Compose five sentences as examples of the following 
rule. 

5. HHF* Some verbs are both transitive and intransitive, accord- 
ing to the way they are nsed.* 

Oral Exercise. 

Models : 

1, Postmen bring letters. il Bring " is a transitive verb, because 

it has an object, " letters." 

Repeat the first definition of the lesson. 

2. Postmen walk, " Walk " is an intransitive verb, because it 
has no object. 

Repeat the second definition of the lesson. 



* See Lesson XVI., page 118, 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 129 

LESSON XXXII. 
Review ; Incomplete Predication. 
Written Exercise. 
Make five sentences by using the following verbs in 
turn : 

are, is, were, was, seem. 

These verbs and a few others like them you will learn by and 
by to call 

intransitive verbs of incomplete predication. 
They are Intransitive because they do not take an object ; 

and yet, unlike other intransitive verbs, they need another 

word to make the statement (or predication) complete. 

Oral Exercise. 

Model ; 

The puppy feels lonesome, " Feels " is an intransitive verb of in- 
complete predication — "intransitive,' 1 because it has no object; and 
" of incomplete predication," because its meaning is incomplete with- 
out another word, as u lonesome." 

LESSON XXXIII. 
Review Lesson XIX., page 120. 

LESSON XXXIV. 

Review Lesson XX1L, page 123. 

ISF'Use *'an" before a vowel-sound, and "a" before a con- 
sonant-sound. 

LESSON XXXV. 
Review Lesson XXIV., page 125. 



" Proper " adjectives are formed from proper nouns. They 
begin with capitals. _ j 



130 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

LESSON XXXVI. 

SUMMAKY OF RULES, DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES. 

1. A common noun is a general name, a class-name, a 
natural name. 

Define a common noun. 

2. A proper noun is a particular name, an own-name, a 
given name. 

Define a proper noun. 

3. A proper noun must always begin with a capital. 
How must a proper noun be written ? 

4. The family name is called the surname. 
The family name is called what ? 

5. Your baptismal name is called your christian name. 

Your baptismal name is called what ? 

6. Transitive verbs are those that must have an object. 
What are transitive verbs ? 

7. Intransitive verbs are those that have no object. 
What are intransitive verbs ? 

8. A transitive sentence is one whose verb has an object. 
What is a transitive sentence ? 

9. An intransitive sentence is one whose verb has no 
object. 

What is an intransitive sentence ? 

10. Some verbs are both transitive and intransitive- 
according to the way they are used. 

What can you say about some verbs being both transitive and in- 
transitive ? 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 131 

11. An is called the indefinite article ; the is called the 
definite article. 

An is called What ? The is called what ? 

12. An is general, uncertain, indefinite. The is particu- 
lar, precise, definite. 

Describe them, 

13. Use an before a vowel-sound ; and V before a con- 
sonant-sound. 

How do you tell whether to use an or a ? 

14. The definite article the is another form of the adjec- 
tive that. 

Give the origin of the definite article the. 

15. Adjectives formed from proper nouns are called 
proper adjectives. They must begin with the capital. 

What are proper adjectives ? What is the rule for writing them ? 

LESSON XXXVII. 

Written Examination : Nouns. 

1. What is a noun? 

2. What two classes of nouns are there ? 

3. What is meant by a class ? 

4. Must things resemble each other in all respects in order 
to make a class ? Illustrate * your meaning by an example 
or two. 

5. What names do all things have on account of their 
nature ? 



* " Illustrate " means to make plain. 



132 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE, 

6. Why is " natural name ' 7 a suitable term ? 

7. What special * names do persons and places generally 
have ? 

8. How do they get these names ? 

9. Why, then, is u given name 77 a suitable term ? 

10. Give a full definition of a common noun ; give ex- 
ample. 

11. Give a full definition of a proper noun ; give ex- 
ample. 

12. Give three short definitions of a common noun. 

13. Give three short definitions of a proper noun. 

14. How must a proper nouu be written ? 

15. Give three common (or class) names of a boy. 

16. Give three proper- (or own) names of a girl. 

17. One 7 s last name is called what ? 

18. What other term is used for it ? 

19. One's first name is called what ? 

20. What other term is used for it ? 

21. The family-name is why so called ? 

22. The baptismal name is why so called ? 



1 " Special " means particular. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 133 

23. The Christian name is why so called ? 

24. Give your own Christian name. Give your own 
family name. 

25. Are the names of the months common, or proper 1 
the days of the week ? 

26. How may common nouns become proper nouns ? 
Give example. 

27. How may an adjective become a proper noun ? 
Give example. 

28. Explain the following examples according to the 
model in Lesson X., page 114. 

Long Island. Red River* Water Street, 



LESSON XXXVIII. 
Written Examination Continued : Verbs. 

1. What is a verb ? 

2. What two great classes of verbs are there? 

3. In what respect do they differ ? 

4. Define a transitive verb; give example. 

5. Define an intransitive verb; give example. 

6. Define a transitive sentence; give example. 

7. Define a transitive sentence in another way. 

8. Define an intransitive sentence; give example. 



134 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

9. Define an intransitive sentence in another way. 

10. What is the " object ,? in a transitive sentence ? 

11. What is meant by " intransitive verbs of incomplete 
predication V J 

12. Name five such verbs. 

13. Why can you not name many ? 

14. What makes them important ? 

15. Give another example, and explain how they are 
intransitive. 

16. Give example, and explain how they differ from 
other intransitive verbs. 

LESSON XXXIX. 
Written Examination Continued : Adjectives. 

1. Articles are a kind of what ? 

2. How many articles are there ? What are their 
names ? 

3. Describe the definite article ; name it. 

4. Describe the indefinite article; name its two forms. 

5. What do " an " and " a " mean ? 

6. When is " an " used ? 

7. When is " a " used ? s . 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 135 

8. Which form is the older ? 

9. Why was " a " brought into the language ? 

10. What is the origin of the article " the " ? 

11. How, then, may you define it ? 

12. What kind of adjectives must begin with a capital ? 
Give example. 

13. Why so called ? 



LESSON XL. 

A Bird's Eye View.* 

[To be committed to memory ,] 

Let us now collect together in a general way the most 
important things we have learned thus far in this book : 

1. Language is the way we have of communicating 
our thoughts to one another. 

2. All languages are made up of separate words, which 
in turn are made up of letters ; these letters, taken to- 
gether, are called the alphabet. 

3. In the English language there are 26 letters, and 
about 100,000 words. 

4. These words are divided into eight classes, called 
parts of speech, viz., noun, verb, pronoun, adjective, ad- 
verb, conjunction, preposition, and interjection. 



* To the teacher ; No pupil should be allowed to pass this lesson until able 
to recite is satisfactorily. 



136 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

5. Of these, the llOUU stands first, because every object 
must have a name to begin with. 

6. The next is the verb — the only word that cannot be 
dispensed with* in the sentence. 

7. Then COnieS the pronoun, which stands for a noun, 
as a substitute, when it would be awkward for the noun 
to appear. 

8. Next comes the adjective, a word that goes with the 
noun, generally to describe it. 

9. Then follows the advert), a word that usually goes 
with the verb, serving^it much as the adjective serves 
the noun. 

10. The list is completed with the conjunction, which 
connects words; the preposition, which shows certain re- 
lationships between words ; and the interjection, which is 
thrown in among other words, as it were, to express 
sudden feeling. 

As to the numbers of these parts of speech : 

1. Of nouns there are, or may be, as many as there are 
different kinds of objects in the world — thousands and 
thousands. 

2. Of verbs there are thousands. 

3. Of pronouns about 50.t 

4. Of adjectives there are thousands. 



* To li dispense with " a thing is to do 'without it. 

f Or nearly ioo, if such words as each, some, any y feiv, &c, are included. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 137 

5. Of adverbs there are thousands. 

6. Of conjunctions, ) 

7. prepositions > there are not far from 50 each. 

8. and interjections, ) 

The sentence is like a block of granite; the grand 
structure of language is built of it. The sentence is a 
thought put into words. In order to think, we must have 
something to think about, or a subject. Then we must 
think about that subject; and this thinking gives us the 
predicate; and these two things united — subject and 
predicate — give us the sentence ; and sentences, put 
properly together, make a language. 

To teach you first, how to make sentences properly, and 
then how to build them together properly, is the object of 
the noble study which this little book opens to you. 



CHAPTER VI. 

ABBREVIATIONS AND PUNCTUATION. 



LESSON I. 

Abbreviations, 
[To be read in class,] 

In printing and writing, some words are often shortened 
for the sake of convenience. President Lincoln used to 
sign his name u A. Lincoln." It would have taken him 
twice as long to write it in full; and this saved him quite 
a good deal of valuable time in the course of his very use- 



138 A PRIMER OF- LANGUAGE. 

fill life, for he had to put his signature to a great many 
papers. This practice of shortening their names is very 
common among business people, to whom " time is money. ,? 
In the same way the names of places are shortened, as 
N. Y. for New York, N. J. for New Jersey, 0. for Ohio, U.S. A. 
for The United States of America, &c. 

Observe that whenever one letter (the first, or initial 
letter) is used for a proper name, a period follows it. Of 
course the letter must always ben capital, because it is the 
initial of a proper name. 

Written Exercise. 

1. $W The shortening' of words is called abbreviation.* 

2. Copy the following, correcting all errors, and adding 
abbreviations where they are omitted : 

1. North America (N.A.) 

2. Ulysses S. Grant (U,S.G.) 

3. Henry Wads worth Longfellow (H.W.L.) 

4. t Jefferson 1 1. Mississippi (Miss) 

5. Pennsylvania 12. William H. Seward 

6. John Greenleaf Whittier 1 3 . Horace Greeley 

7. J A Garfield 14. William Cullen Bryant 

8. tlhode Island 15, The United States 

9. James Russell Lowell 16. New Hampshire 
10, Oliver Wendell Holmes 17. De Witt Clinton 

3. Write the names of ten of your schoolmates, or 
acquaintances, abbreviating the first, or christian names. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model ; 

North America (N.A,) ". North America " may be abbreviated to 
N.A. These letters must be capitals, because they are the initials of 
proper names. Each is followed by a period, as a sign of abbrevia- 
tion. 

Repeat the general statement of the lesson. 



*** Abbreviate," (Latin bre-vis, short) means to make brief, or, to shorten. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 139 



LESSON II. 
Abbreviations. 
[2'o be read in class,] 

When you send a letter to Massachusetts you abbreviate 
the name of the state in directing the letter, but not by 
simply writing the initial M. That would not be under- 
stood, and your letter might go to Missouri, or Maine. If 
you abbreviate, you must write Mass. The abbreviation 
of Connecticut is Conn., and so on. A full list of the ab- 
breviated names of our states is given in the appendix at 
the end of this book. 

If you were to receive a letter from a stranger with the 
signature " J. Wirt/' you could not tell what the christian 
name was— it might be John, or Jane, or James, or Julia; 
and yet " J. Wirt" would be enough, if you did not care 
to know his (or her) christian name, or if it was not im- 
portant for you to know it. 

A great many words are abbreviated. Not a little time 
is saved in this way to both writer and reader. Some of 
the commonest of these abbreviations are given in the 
appendix. 

There are two ways of abbreviating : 

1. By omitting more or less of the latter part of the 
word, as, " J.' 7 for John, u Prof," for Professor. 

2. By omitting one or more letters from the middle part 
of the word, as, " St.'' for Saint, " Dr." for Doctor. 

Abbreviations are usually marked, or denoted by a 
period at the end, though they are sometimes denoted by a 
comma over the place where the omission occurs, as 
" rec'd " for received, u bo't " for bought, " tlio* " for though. 
This comma has a hard name : it is called an apostrophe.* 

* In the oral spelling of abbreviated words the abbreviation-mark should be 
separately named, thus ; Dr. : " d-r-period, doctor." Bo't : " b-o-apostrophe-t, 
bought." 



140 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



Written Exercise. 

1. 1®" Abbreyiations are usually denoted by a period at the 
end.* 

2. SSf" Abbreviations are sometimes denoted by an apos- 
trophe. 

3. Copy the following, together with the abbreviated 
forms of each ; you will find them in the appendix : 



1. Rail Road = R.R. 

2. Doctor of Medicine 

3. Noon = 

4. forenoon = 

5. afternoon = 

6. Tuesday = 

7. Thursday = 

8. Postscript = 

9. East = 



10, West = 
M.D. 11. February = 

12. September = 

13. Collect on Delivery = 

14. Before Christ == 

15. In the Year of our Lord 

16. Take Notice = 

17. Mister = 

18. mountain = 



Oral Exercise. 
Recite as in the preceding lesson. 



LESSON III. 

Punctuation. 
[To be read in class.'] 

You have, no doubt, learned already that the period, the 
comnia, etc., which you constantly meet in reading, are 
called punctuation -marks. Suppose you should find a book 
printed in this way : 

Howfarofidoyouthinkthesunishowlongdoyouthinkitwoul 
dtakeyoutogothereifyoucouldgobyrailaboysaidheguessedit 
would takeayearandtherestofthechildren though themean tit 
asajokeandtheyalllaughedbutitwouldtakeagreatdeallonger 
th an thatit would takeSOOy ears. 

You would think such a book an amusing curiosity. So 
it would be now-a-days. But long ago — ages before print- 

* Some abbreviations are denoted in both ways : as, " bros." and " bro's " 
for brothers ,* and so of other words. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 141 

ing was invented — people wrote just in that way, without 
separating words or sentences, or using any punctuatiou- 
marks at all. Why is not this style just as good as any ? 
You say because you can't understand it so well. Yes, 
that is the reason. The separation of words, use of capi- 
tals, and punctuation are simply to help you understand 
what is written or printed. When you speak, the tones of 
your voice usually make your meaning plain. Let some 
pupil read the preceding paragraph all in the same tone of 
voice, paying no attention to punctuation or emphasis, 
just as little children are apt to do when they are first 
learning to read ; and then let another pupil read it with 
proper pauses and emphasis, and you will see how much 
better you understand what is said naturally. 

Besides this, the meaning of a passage may be changed 
entirely by the way it is punctuated. See how absurd 
this is : 

He walked in his hat. Under his arm he wore a queer -look- 
ing pair of old shoes. 

Sow read it when correctly punctuated : 

He walked in, his hat under his arm. He wore a queer -look- 
ing pair of old shoes. 

You see by these examples how important a matter 
punctuation is. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Copy the above passage about the sun, as you think 
it ought to be written. 

2. &T Punctuation is the separating of words by marks, so as 
to make the meaning plainer. 

Oral Exercise. 

For to-day's oral exercise, the teacher, (or a pupil that is skilful 
with the crayon), might copy upon the board the above passage 
about the sun, the class dictating as follows : 



142 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

"[Capital] — How far off do you think the sun is — [interrogation- 
mark] — ? — [capital] — How long," etc. 



LESSON IV. 

The Comma : Words in a Series. 
[To be read in class.} 

You have already learned how to use the period, (.), the 
interrogation -mark, (?), and the exclamation-iiiark, (!). 
I will now tell you a little about the comma, (,). 

What is meant by the following sentence? 

Here are figs sugar candy and peanuts for you. 

How many things are named ? Is "sugar' 7 named as 
a separate thing? or, is it used only to describe candy? 
Nobody but the writer can tell, because the punctuation is 
incomplete. If three things are meant, it should be 
printed thus : 

Here are figs, sugar -candy, and peanuts for you, 

If four things are meant, it should be printed thus : 

Here are figs, sugar, candy, and peanuts for you. 

When there are only two words used in the same way, 
and connected by "and," there must be no comma : as, 

Tabby and Frisky are my pets. 

But when there is a series* of words, all used in the 
same way in the sentence, they must be separated from each 
other by the comma. Observe in tbe example, 

Here are figs, sugar, candy, and peanuts for you, 
there is no comma before " figs,'' nor after u peanuts ;" it 
is used merely to separate the four words " figs, 7 ' " sugar/' 
u candy," and Ci peanuts ^ from each other. % 

Observe also the form of the comma — a dot with a 
curved tail ; and observe its position — the dot on the line, 
and the tail below the line. 



"* A " series " of things means a row of them. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 143 

Written Exercise. 

1. Copy the following correctly : 

1. Horses dogs cats sheep cows and oxen are domestic animals. 

2. Mamie is faithful f upright, and kind. 

3. Robins canaries and bobolinks are sweet singers, 

4. John and Charles are brothers. 

5. My pets are a dog two cats and a mocking bird. 

6. The steamer brought us safely swiftly and comfortably home. 

7. Charles can skate swim wrestle and row. 

8. The farmer shipped his potatoes apples and grain to N,Y. 

9. Mary sews knits bakes and sweeps. 

1 0. George has a slice of bread and butter. 

11. I can play sing and dance. 

12. Washington was honest virtuous and biave. 

2. f&T When there is a series of words, (three or more), all 
used iii the same way, they must he separated from each other 
l>y the comma.* 

Oral Exercise. 

Model ; 

Here are figs, sugar -candy, and peanuts for you. In this sen- 
tence there is a comma after " figs " and one after " sugar-candy," 
because " figs," " sugar-candy," and " peanuts " are a series of three 
words all used in the same way, and must therefore be separated from 
each other by the comma. 

Repeat the rule in concert. 



LESSON V. 

The Comma : Words in a Series, 
[To be read in class.] 

Gold is a metal. Silver is a metal. Iron is a metal. 

We may unite these three sentences into one, thus : 
Gold, silver,and iron are metals ; which is a much better 
way of stating the three tacts. 



* Sometimes a conjunction takes the place of the comma 5 as, Washington 
ivas honest and 'virtuous and brave. 



144 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Unite the following in a (similar way : 

1. Roses are in bloom. Violets are in bloom. Lilies are in bloom, 

2. Mary is amiable. Mary is kind. Mary is good. 

3. The peach is a delicious fruit. The apricot is a delicious fruit. 
The plum is a delicious fruit, 

4. Washington was a great man. Franklin was a great man. 
Jefferson was a great man. 

5. The United States exports cotton. The United States exports 
wool. The United States exports flour. The United States exports 
rice. The United States exports beef The United States exports 
pork. The United States exports petroleum. The United States 
exports many other things. 

6. The United States imports tea. The United States imports 
coffee. The United States imports sugar. The United States im- 
ports spices. The United States imports many other things. 

7. New York is a populous city. Philadelphia is a populous city. 
Brooklyn is a populous city. Chicago is a populous city. St. Louis 
is a populous city. Boston is a populous city. Baltimore is a po- 
pulous city. 

2. 2^° When there is a series of words, all used in the same 
way, they must be separated from, each other by the comma. 

Oral Exercise. 

Model: 

Gold, silver, and iron are metals. In this sentence, there is a 
comma after " gold," and one after " silver," because ".gold," 
" silver," and " iron " are a series of words all used in the same way, 
and must therefore be separated from each other by the comma, 

Repeat the rule in concert. 



LESSON VI. 

The Comma : Words in a Series. 
[To be read in class.] 

Take the phrase, 

lay eggs, 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 145 

and compose three sentences with it, thus: 

Birds lay eggs. Fishes lay eggs. Reptiles lay eggs, 

Then unite these three sentences into one, thus : 
Birds, fishes, and reptiles lay eggs. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Treat each of the following phrases in the same way : 

1. climb trees. 2. received presents. 3. eat grass. 

4. like cheese. 5. can fly. 6. are savage. 

2. fi^~ When there is a series of words, all used in the same 
way, they must he separated from one another hy the comma. 

Oral Exercise. 

Recite as in the preceding lesson. 



LESSON VII. 

The Comma : Words in a Series. 
[To be read in class.] 
Take the phrase, 

Men build, 
and compose three sentences with it, thus : 

Men build houses, Men build bridges, Men build 
ships. 
Then unite these three sentences into one, thus : 
Men build houses, bridges, and ships, 

Written Exercise. 

1. Treat eacli of the following phrases in the same way : 

1. Horses eat . 2. George plays . 3. Fishermen catch . 

4. Mary makes . 5. Farmers raise ■ S. I like . 

2. I3f~ When there is a series of words, all used in the same 
way, they must he separated from one another hy the comma. 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite as in Lesson V. 



146 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



LESSON VIII. 

Words in Pairs, with And. 
{To be read in class.] 

Take the phrase, 

burrow in the ground, 
and compose two sentences with it, thus : 

Rabbits burrow in the ground. Moles burrow in the 
ground. 

Then unite these two sentences into one, thus : 
Rabbits and moles burrow in the ground. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Treat each of the following phrases in the same way : 

1. build nests. 4. are in bloom. 

2. work in factories. 5. eat hay. 

3. often howl at night. 6. like candy. 

2. 2SIF Words in pairs, when used in the same way, and con- 
nected by and, must not be separated by a comma. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model ; 

Rabbits and moles burrow in the ground. In this sentence 
" rabbits " and " moles " must not be separated from each other by 
the comma. 

Repeat the rule of the lesson in concert. 



LESSON IX. 

Words in Pairs, with And. 
[To be read in class.] 

Take the phrase, 

Rats live, 
and compose two sentences with it, thus : 

Rats live in cellars. Rats live in barns. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 147 

Then unite these two sentences into one, thus: 
Rats live in cellars and barns. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Treat each of the following phrases in the same way : 

1. Birds will eat , 2. I have studied . 3. Can you ? 

4, Baby loves . 5« Charlie bought . 6. The boys played . 

2. $W Words in pairs^ when used in the same way, and con- 
nected by and, must not be separated by a comma. 

Ch*al Exercise. 
Recite as in the preceding lesson. 



LESSON X. 

Words in Pairs, with Or. 
[To be read in class,] 

Take the phrase, 

To-morrow there will be, 
and compose two sentences with it, thus : 

To-morrow there will be rain. To-morrow there will be 
snow. 

Then unite these two sentences into one, with the con- 
junction, or, thus : 

To-morrow there will be rain or snow. 

Written Exercise. 
1. Treat each of the following phrases in the same way : 

1. You may have . 

2. I will buy . 

3. He gave me my choice of . 

m 4. Pussy has not caught . 

5. On this farm I can raise , 

6. I think the strange bird was a , 

7. Is vour house built of ? 



148 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

2. GUT Words in pairs, when used in the same way, and con- 
nected by or j must not usually he separated by a comma.* 

Oral Exercise. 

Model : 

To-morrow there will be rain or snow. In this sentence, there is 
no comma between " rain " and " snow," 
Repeat the rule of the lesson in concert. 
Repeat the foot-note in concert. 



LESSON XI. ' 

The Comma : Person oh Thing Spoken to by Name. 
[To be read in class,'] 

When any person or thing is spoken to by name,t the 
name along with its adjuncts,! if it has any, must be 
separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma : as, 

John, please shut the door. 

What did you say, Mary ? 

1 am very lonesome, dear Mother, ivhen you are away. 
Sit still, good Dolly, while I am gone. 

Pussy, you scratch me. 

Written Exercise. 

1 . &SF* When a person or thing is spoken to by name, the 
name along with its adjuncts, if it has any, must he separated from 
the rest of the sentence by the comma. 

2. Copy the following correctly : 

] . Sarah when are you going to Florida 

2 I dont know Charlie when I shall go 

3. Take care my little lad or you'll get run over 

4. Lie still ray pretty Dolly till I come back 



* When both words refer to the same thing, one being explanatory of the 
other, the comma is used ; as, water is changed by heat into steam, or vapor, 
j- The name may be either common or proper. See Chapter V., Lesson IV, 
j See note on page 70. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 149 

5. Please dont be gone long little Mamma 

6. Dolly if you are good I will come back soon 

7. Run my dear Charlie or you'll be late 

8. Come here Carlo and see your new master 

Oral Exercise. 

Model ; 

Sit still, good Dolly, while I am gone. The phrase, "good 
Dolly," must have a comma before it and one after it, to separate it 
from the rest of the sentence, because it is spoken to by name. % 



LESSON XII. 
The Comma ; Person or Thing Spoken to by Name. 

Written Exercise* 

1. ty* When a person or thing is spoken to by name, 
the name along with its adjuncts, if it has any, must be 
separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma. 

2. You probably did not succeed in punctuating the last 
exercise altogether correctly. Now copy every sentence 
as it should be written, following carefully your teacher's 
corrections. 

Oral Exercise* 

Give a reason for the punctuation of every sentence in your 
written exercise, thus : 
1 Sarah, when are you going 1 to Florida % 

" Sarah " being spoken to by name, her name must have a comma 
after it, to separate it from the rest of the sentence. The sentence 
being a question, there must be a question-mark at the end. 

2. I don't know, Charlie, when I shall go. 

" Charlie " being spoken to by name, his name must have a comma 
before it and one after it, to separate it from the rest of the sentence. 
The sentence being declarative, there must be a period at the end. 



150 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

3. Take care, my little lad, or you'll get ran oyer. 

The " lad " being spoken to by name, his name along with its ad- 
juncts " my " and " little," (that is, the phrase, " my little lad,") must 
have a comma before it and one after it, to separate it from the rest 
of the sentence, The sentence being declarative, there must be a 
period at the end. 



LESSON XIII. 
The Comma: Person or Thing Spoken to by Name. 

Written Exercise. 

Copy the following sentences. Observe the punctuation 
carefully : 

1. Come here, John. 10. James passes the bread. 

2. John came here. 11. May is here. 

3. What do you say, Charles ? 12. Is May here ? 

4. What does Charles say ? 13. Are you here, May ? 

5. My friend, is that you ? 14. May, are you here ? 

6. Is that you, my friend ? 15 Sing, my little birdie, 

7. How are you, sir ? 16. My little birdie, sing. 

8. No, sir, I thank you. 17. My little birdie sings. 

9. Please pass the bread, James. 

Oral Exercise. 
Read Lesson XIV. 



LESSON XIV. 
The Comma : Person or Thing Spoken to by Name. 

Exercise^ partly Written and partly (h*ah 

1. Explain the comma or its absence, in each of the sen- 
tences given in the preceding lesson, according to the fol- 
lowing model. Write the explanation for ISTos. 3, 7, 10, 15 
and 17. Explain the rest orally. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 151 

Model : 

1. Coine here, John. 

" John 7 ' being spoken to by name, his name must have 
a comma before it, to separate it from the rest of the sen- 
tence. 

2. John came here. 

" John " not being spoken to, but merely spoken of, his 
name must not be separated from the rest of the sentence 
by a comma. 

5. My friend, is that you ? 

The " friend " being spoken to by name,* the name 
along with its adjunct " my," (that is, the phrase "my 
friend, '') must have a comma after it, to separate it from 
the rest of the sentence. 

6. Is that you, my friend ? 

The u friend " being spoken to by name, the name, along 
with its adjunct " my," (that is, the phrase " my friend,") 
must have a comma before it, to separate it from the rest 
of the sentence. 

8. No, sir, I thank you. 

" Sir " being spoken to by name,t the name must have 
a comma before and after it, to separate it from the rest 
of the sentence. 

2. %W When a person or thing is spoken to by name, the name, 
along with its adjuncts, if it has any, must he separated from the 
rest of the sentence hy the comma. 

* Read again what is said about names on pages 27-28. 

-j- " Sir " is the name, or title given by the speaker, in this example, to the 
person addressed. 



152 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

LESSON XV. 
Review : Abbreviations. 

Written Exercise* 

1. Write, according to the model,* being careful of the 
punctuation : 

1 . Ten abbreviated names of states, (other than those given in the 
model) . 

2. The abbreviated names of the months ; 

3. The abbreviated names of the days of the week ; 

4. The names of the Presidents of the United States, abbreviating 
their given names, (see appendix.) 

2. Copy what is said on page 169 about the two ways 
of abbreviation, and the two ways of marking, or denoting 
abbreviations. 

3. OF" An abbreviation is a shortening of a word for conveni- 
ence. 

Oral Exercise* 

Model : 

1 , " M-i-c-h-period." This is an abbreviation for Michigan. 

2. "A. Lincoln." " A." is an abbreviation for Abraham. 
Repeat the definition of the lesson. 

LESSON XVI. 
Review : Abbreviations. 

Written Exercise* 
1. Abbreviate the following words (see appendix) : 

Avenue Editor East 

Brother Esquire West 

Bought And so forth Number 



f Model : 

1. Mich, ; Cat. ; Tex. ; Ark. ; Miss. ; Mo. ; La. ; Kan. ; Neb. ; Wis. 

2. Jan.; Feb.; &c . 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



153 



Captain 

Chapter 

County 

College 

Company 

Doctor of Divinity 

Dozen 

Doctor 

Secretary 

Sunday School 

Saint 

Street 



General 

Present month 

Last month 

Next month 

The younger 

Mistress 

North 

South 

Treasurer 

United States 

United States Army Volume 

United States Navy The same. 

2. ^Abbreviations are usually denoted by a period at the 
end ; sometimes by an apostrophe. 



Post Office 

President 

Principal 

Professor 

Pro tempore, (for the time) 

Postscript 

Reverend 

Rail Road 

Vide (see) 

Namely 



Oral Eocerclse. 
Recite as in the preceding lesson. 

LESSON XVII. 

Review : Punctuation. 



Written Fxercise. 

1. Write the following correctly : 

He walked in his hat. Under his arm he wore a queer- 
looking pair of old shoes. 

2. W Punctuation is the separating of words by marks, so as 
to make the meaning plainer. 

3. Copy the folio wing*, correctly punctuated : 

1. Duke and Turk are two fine dogs. 

2. We have horses cows and sheep. 

3. Gold and silver are precious metals, 

4. Iron lead copper tin and zinc are useful metals. 

5. You may have an apple or a pear. 



4. J®" Words in pairs, when nsed in the same way, and con- 
nected by and must not be separated by a comma. 



154 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

5. KW When there is a series of words, all used in the same 
way, they must foe separated from each other by the comma. 

6. $W Words in pairs, when used in the same way and con- 
nected by or, must not usually foe separated foy the comma. 

7. Unite the following- three sentences into one : 
Horses eat grass. Cattle eat grass. Sheep eat grass. 

Oral Exercise. 

[Repeat the first general statement of the lesson.] 

Models ; 

1. Tafofoy and Frisky are my pets. " Tabby M and " Frisky " are 
not separated by a comma, because they are a pair of words, used in 
the same way and connected by and. 

2. Birds, fishes^ and reptiles lay eg'g'S.* There is a comma after 
" birds," and one after " fishes," because they are a series of words 
all used in the same way. 

3. Shall ( we play ball or marbles % " Ball " and " marbles " are 
not separated by a comma, because they are a pair of words used in 
the same way, and connected by or. 

[Repeat the other general statements of the lesson.] 



LESSON XVIII. 
Review Lesson X. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

To-morrow there will be rain or snow. There is no comma be- 
tween " rain " and " snow," because they are a pair of words used in 4 
the same way and connected by or. 

Repeat the rule. 

* In reading your sentences, name the punctuation -marks when you come 
to them, thus; '• Birds [comma], fishes [comma], and reptiles lay eggs." 
[period]. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 155 

LESSON XIX. 



Review Lesson XI. 



LESSON XX. 

A Test Lesson. 

Exercise, Written and Oral. 

Correct the following sentences for abbreviation, capi- 
tals and punctuation. Some of them are right as they 
stand. Copy them all correctly : 

1. n.y. Pennsylvania* and Mass are states 

2. Come here father and see the elephant 

3. Will you haye beef mutton lamb pork or veal 

4. Santa claus left us candies toys and money 

5. We raise Apples Pears and Peaches 

6. mister please give me a Penny 

7. I am blind and lame. 

8. charlie can neither read nor write. 

9. Bring me the ball Rover. 

10. The Sexton rings the bell. 

11. Ring the bell sexton 

12. I will return to-day or to-morrow 

13. What did you say Sir ? 

14. Is father f sick ? 

15. Is your father}: sick ? 

16. Father are you sick? 

17. Help yourself to a peach or two. 

18. Go to sleepily little darling baby. 

19. What are you doing here you lazy tramp ? 

20. Men women and children are counted in the census. 

21. You may have apples or oranges. 

22. They are man, and wife. 

23. Dont wake, baby, up. 

* In a list of this kind, all should be treated alike ; abbreviate every one or 
none. 

j" ** Father " is here a proper noun, 
t " Father" is here a common noun. 



156 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

24. Was Charles hurt ? 

25. Were you hurt charles ? 

26. Charles, and I were coasting. 

27. The rowdies threw ice, stones, and clubs, at us. 

28. Take care baby pussy has sharp claws. 



LESSON XXI. 
Summary of Rules. Definitions and Principles. 

1. Ad abbreviation is a shortened word. 

What is an abbreviation ? 

2. Abbreviations are usually denoted by a period at the 
end ; they are sometimes denoted by an apostrophe. 

How denoted ? 

3. Punctuation is the separating' of words by marks, so 
as to make the meaning plainer. 

What is punctuation ? 

4. When there is a series of words, all used in the same 
way, they must be separated from each other by the 
comma. 

Give the rule for punctuating a series of words. 

5. Words in pairs, when used in the same way, and 
connected by and, must not be separated by a commit. 

Give the rule for punctuating words in pairs, with and. 

6. Words in pairs, when used in the same way, and 
connected by or, must not usually be separated by a 
comma. 

Give the rule for punctuating words in pairs, with or. 

7. When a person or thing is spoken to by name, the 
name along with its adjuncts, if it has any, must be sepa- 
rated from the rest of the sentence by a comma. 

Give the rule of punctuation, when a person or thing is spoken to 
by name. 



3, 
4. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 157 

LESSON XXII. 
Examination . 

1. What is an abbreviation ? 

2. Why are abbreviations used ? 

," > What are the two ways of abbreviating ? 

5. Give an example of each. 

6. How are abbreviations usually denoted ? 

7. What other mark is sometimes used ? Give its 
name. 

8. Where must it be placed ? 

9. What is punctuation ? 

10. What is its purpose ? 

11. Name the three punctuation marks you have already 
learned about. 

12. Give the rule for the use of the comma in the case 
of words in a series. 

13. Give the rule for the use of the comma in the case 
of words in pairs, with and. 

14. Give the rule for the use of the comma in the case 
of words in pairs, with or. 

15. Give the rule for the use of the comma in the case 
of a person or thing spoken to by name. 

16. Copy the following sentences correctly : 

1. Texas and California are the largest states. 

2. Washington Adams and Jefferson were patriots. 

3. Pennsylvania O. Mass. and Illinois are states. 

4. Rover bring rne the ball. 

5. How do you do sir ? 



158 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

6. Father is sick. 

7. Father are you sick ? 

8. Come in my little boy and wash your hands. 

9. I think we shall have rain or snow. 

17. Explain (lie punctuation of the following of the 
above sentences : JSos. 6, 7, 8 and 9. 



CHAPTER VI L 

SENTENCE-BUILDING. 



LESSON T. 

Contraction.* 
Written Exercise, 

1. Unite each of the following sets of sentences into one 
sentence: 

c In my garden I planted pease. 

1. < In my garden I planted beans. 
' In my garden I planted corn. 

t In winter, boys and girls have skating. 

2. < In winter, boys and girls have coasting. 

( In winter, boys and girls have sleigh-riding. 

i At Mary's party we danced. 

3. < At Mary's party we sang, 

' At Mary's party we played games. 



/ Our plantation in Florida produces oranges. 
4. ) Our plantation in Florida produces lemons. 
I Our plantation in Florida produces limes. 

("Iron is a useful metal, 
j Copper is a useful metal. 
j Lead is a useful metal. 



(_Tin is a useful metal. 



*To " contract " anything is to make it smaller. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 159 

[Model : In my garden I planted pease, beans, and corn.] 

2. $W When there is a series of words, used hi the same way, 
they must he separated from each other by the comma. 

Oral Exercise. 

Model ; 

In my garden I planted pease. 
In my garden I planted beans. 
In my garden I planted corn. 

These three sen ten ce% may he united into one as follows: 

In my garden I planted pease, beans, and corn. "Pease," 
" beans," and " corn " are separated from each other by the comma, 
because they are a series of words all used in the same way. 

Repeat the rule. 

LESSON II. 

Expansion. 

Written Exercise. 

Expand* each of the following sentences into a set or 
group of sentences : 

1. Our school-room contains desks, chairs, maps, a piano, and 
other things. 

2. The United States exports cotton, flour, pork, and many other 
things to Europe. 

3. Franklin, Morse, and Howe were great American inventors. 

4. We import dates, figs, and ivory from Africa. 

5. The farmer brought potatoes, turnips, and cabbages to market. 

Model : 

j" Our school-room contains desks. 
Our school-room contains chairs. 
1. { Our school-room contains maps. 
j Our school-room contains a piano. 
[Our school-room contains other things. 



* To " expand " anything is to make it larger. 



160 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercise. 

Model : 

Our school-room contains desks, chairs, maps, a piano, and 
other things. This sentence may be expanded into a group of five 
sentences, as follows : [See model, written exercise.] 

LESSON III. 

Contraction. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Contract, each of the following- groups of sentences : 

"We import tea from China. 
We import silks from China. 
1 . We import fancy goods from China. 
] We import tea from Japan. 
| We import silks from Japan. 
LWe import fancy goods from Japan. 

("We send clothing to Mexico. 

| We send watches to Mexico. 

9 1 We send machinery to Mexico. 

j We send clothing to South America, 
| We send watches to South America. 
(_We send machinery to South America. 



M 



"We import coffee from South America. 

We import sugar from South America. 

We import fruit from South America. 

We import coffee from the West Indies. 
( We import sugar from the West Indies. 
l_We import fruit from the West Indies. 



f We had coffee for breakfast, 

4. ^ We had eggs fqr breakfast, 
LWe had toast for breakfast. 

f I have cats for pets. 

5. ^ I have dogs for pets, 

LI have rabbits for pets. 

[Model : 

We import tea, silks, and fancy goods from China and Japan.] 

2. 2^*" When there is a series of words, used in the same way^ 
they must he separated from each other hy the comma. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 161 

Oral Exercise. 



Recite as in Lesson I. 



LESSON IV. 

Expansion. 

Written Exercise. 

Expand each of the following examples into as many 
sentences as the figure at the end indicates : 

1. The lion and tiger are wild, fierce, and powerful animals (6). 

2. We send furniture, clothing, and fancy goods to Mexico, the 
West Indies and South America (9). 

3. Washington, Jefferson, and Hamilton were great American 
patriots and statesmen (6). 



Oral Exercise. 



Recite as in Lesson II. 
I 



LESSON V. 

Contraction 

Written Exercise. 

1. Contract each of the following groups of sentences : 

1 i The rich must meet death. 
I The poor must meet death. 

9 I The rain falls on the just. 
f The rain falls on the unjust. 

o \ Hannibal was a great general. 
( Scipio was a great general. 

f The dog is a very intelligent animal. 

4. ^ The elephant is a very intelligent animal. 

LThe horse is a very intelligent animal. 

f Laura Bridgeman could not see. 

5. J Laura Bridgeman could not hear, 
L Laura Bridgeman could not speak. 

2. 8SF When there is a series of words, used in the same way, 
they must he separated from each other hy the comma. 



162 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite as in Lesson I. 



LESSON VI. 

Composition. 

Written Exercise. 

Compose sentences by telling what the following' tilings 
are, and how they are used, or bow they are useful: 
Knife, fork, horse, dog, sheep, cows, locomotive, sleigb. 

In the sentences thus composed separate subject from 
predicate by a vertical line. 

[Model : 

A knife \ is an instrument used for cutting. 

A dog | is an animal useful in guarding property."] 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

A knife is an instrument used for cutting". The subject of this 
sentence is " a knife," and the predicate is " is an instrument used 
for cutting." 

LESSON VII. 

Composition . 

Written Exercise. 

Compose sentences by telling what the following things 
are, and how they are useful, according to the model given 
in the preceding lesson. Separate subject from predicate 
by a vertical line. 

Spoon, aqueduct, piano, cats, railroad, hoe. 

Oral Exercise. 

Recite as in the preceding lesson. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 163 



LESSON VIII. 

Composition. 
Written Exercise. 
Build sentences of the following : 

The United States, England, Mexico, 
Brazil, Cape Colony, Victoria, Japan. 
[Model : 

The United States is a country of North America. ] 

Oral Exercise. 

Tell what part of speech each word of your sentences is — each 
pupil taking one word, thus : The United States is a country of 
North America. " The " is an article ; " United " is a noun ; 
44 States " is a noun ; &c. 

LESSON IX. 

Composition. 

Written Exercise. 

Compose sentences by telling what the following things 

are, and how 7 they are useful, according to the model given 

in Lesson VI. 

birds, a saw, silver, a wagon, a canal, the eyes. 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite as in the preceding lesson. 

LESSON X. 
Composition. 
Written Exercise. 
Build sentences of the following, separating subject from 
predicate by a vertical line : 

New York, London, Paris, 
Rio Janeiro, Montreal, Canton, Yedo. 
[Model : 
New York \ is the principal commercial city of the United States.] 



164 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercise* 
Recite as in Lesson VI. 



LESSON XL 

Composition. 

Written Exercise, 

Compose sentences by telling what the following things 
are, and how they are useful, according to the model 
given in Lesson VI: 

a clock, sheep, bells,' the nose,, iron, pens. 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite as in Lesson VIII. 

LESSON XII. 
Composition. 
Written Exercise. 
Build sentences of the following, separating subject 
from predicate by a vertical line : 

Boston, Richmond, Columbus, San Francisco, 
New Orleans, Harrisburg, Pekin. 
[Model : 
San Francisco, on San Francisco Bay, \ is the capital of California.] 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite as in Lesson VI. 



LESSON XIII. 

Composition. 

Written Exercise. 

Compose sentences by telling what the following things 

are, and how (hey are useful, according to the model given 

in Lesson VI : 

a book, the mouth, a cup, a steamboat, gold, a sewing-machine. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 165 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite as in Lesson VIII. 

LESSON XIV. 
Review : Contraction and Expansion. 
Written Exercise. 

1. Contract the five groups of sentences in Lesson. I., 

according to the model. 

2. 8SIF* TYlien there is a series of words, used in the same way, 
they must he separated from each other by the comma. 

3. Expand the third and fourth examples in Lesson II., 
according to the model. 

Oral Exercise. 

1. Recite as in Lesson I. 

2. Repeat the above rule in concert. 

3. Recite as in Lesson II. 

LESSON XV. 

Review : Contraction and Expansion. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Make the contractions called for in Lesson III., ac- 
cording to the model. 

2. B®" When there is a series of words, used in the same way, 
they must he separated from each other by the comma. 

3. Expand example 2 in Lesson IV., as required. 

Oral Exercise. 

1. Recite as in Lesson I. 

2. Repeat the above rule in concert. 

3. Recite as in Lesson II. 



166 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

LESSON XVI. 



Keview Lesson JVI. 



LESSON XVII. 
Review Lesson VIII. 

LESSON XVIII. 
Oral Review of Lessons X. and XII. 



LESSON XIX. 
Examination. 

1. What does " expand ?? mean ? 

2. What does " contract " mean ? 

3. Expand (he following into as many sentences as yon 
can : 

There are roses, pinks, heliotropes and violets in my nosegay. 

4. Contract the following into one sentence : 

Oats like meat. 
Oats like fish. 
Oats like milk. 

5. Make a good sentence by telling what spectacles arc, 
and how they are useful. 

6. Do the same for a clock. 

7. Do the same for the eyes. 

8. Give the rule for the use of (he comma, when there 
is a series of words. 

9. Construct a good sentence about New York. 

10. About San Francisco. 

11. About London. 

12. About Pekin. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 167 



CHAPTER VIII. 
the sign 's; or, belonging tq, 



LESSON L 

Introductory. 
[To be read in class.] 

My dog's nose is always cold. 
My dogs will do some tricks. 

In the above examples, the second word is nearly the 
same in both, but not quite. Observe the difference be- 
tween them. Except for the little comma that separates 
the g from the s in the first example, they would be 
exactly alike; but their meaning is very different, as you 
see. That little comma is a very important tiling. It is 
an apostrophe, as you learned to call it in Chapter VI., 
Lesson II. — an abbreviation-mark.* This apostrophe and 
the s together signify t belonging to. The expression u my 
dog's nose," is equivalent $ to the nose belonging to my dog. 

Written Exercise. 

1, Copy the following phrases, and add to each its 
equivalent. Underscore the phrase, belonging to. 

[Model : 

our horse's head ; or, the head belonging to our horse, 
my dog's nose ; or, the nose belonging to my dog.] 

1. our horse's head, 3. a year's work, 

2. my dog's nose. 4. a day's doings. 

* The word "dog's" is a shortened form of the old English word doges* 
In the same way we have " pig's " for piges, " cat's " for cates, " hat's " for 
.hates, and so on. The shortened form was introduced about 200 years ago. 

f Or, mean. 

J " Equivalent " here signifies, having the same meaning. 



168 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

5. a bird's wing. 9. Mary's new dress. 

6. a hen's egg. 10. the doctor's bill. 

7. the boy's tricks. 11. a ship's crew. 

8. Henry's bicycle. 12. the baby's cradle. 

2. 1ST The apostrophe and s (*s) joined to a word signify 
belonging to. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

Our horse's head ; or, the head belonging to our horse. These 
two phrases are equivalent ; that is, they mean the same. The 
s with an apostrophe before and a little above it, means belonging to, 

Repeat the above general statement. 



LESSON II. 
Examples for Practice. 
[To be read in class.] 

The phrase 

a cat's paws 
is equivalent, as we saw in the preceding lesson, to 

the paws belonging to a cat. 
It is also equivalent to 

the paws of a cat. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Copy the following, and add to each its equivalent, 
underscoring the preposition of. 

[Model : 

a cafs paws ; or, the paws of a cat.] 

1. a cat's paws 5. the watchman's club. 

2. the doll's head. 6. the milkman's cry. 

3. a child's voice. 7. a farmer's wagon. 

4. a man's hat. 8. a butcher's cart. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE 169 

9. a lion s mane. 11. a rabbit's track. 

10. a lady's glove. 12. the president's house. 

2. $W " Ot '" means belonging to. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

A cat's paws ; or, the paws of a cat. These two phrases are 
equivalent ; that is, they mean the same. The s with an apostrophe 
before and a little above it, means of, or belonging to. 

Repeat the general statement of the lesson. 



LESSON III. 

Examples for Practice. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Change the following-phrases into others containing 
the apostrophe ; thus : 

[Model : 

the paws of a cat ; or, a cat's paws.] 

(In placing the apostrophe be particular not to put it 
too low, nor too high.) 

1. the paws of a cat. 7. the tail of a comet. 

2. the wool of a sheep. 8. the heat of the sun. 

3. the spots of a leopard. 9. the light of the moon. 

4. the ears of a dog. 10. the song of a bird. 

5. the trunk of an elephant. 11. the saw of a carpenter. 

6. the crew of a ship. 12. the wagon of a milkman. 

2. £!F* The sign 9 s means of, or belonging to. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model ; 

The paws of a cat ; or, a cat's paws. These two phrases are 
equivalent, or, mean the same. The sign 's* means of, or, belonging 
to. 



' Call it, apostrophe and s % 



170 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



LESSON IV. 

A Test-Lesson. 
Written Exercise. 

1. Change the following phrases to equivalent ones : 

1. the antlers of a deer. 7. a farmer's oxen. 

2. a buffalo's horn. 8. the axe of a forester. 

3. the point of a pen. 9, the boat of a fisherman. 

4. a pin's head. 10. the brush of a painter. 

5. the awl of a shoemaker. 11. a writer's pen. 

6. a lamplighter's ladder. 12. a student's books. 

2. ^W* The sign 9 s means of 9 or belonging to. 

Oral Exercise. 
Recite as in the preceding lesson. 

LESSON V. 
Another Sign that Means Of or Belonging to. 
[To be read in class.] 

What do you think of these phrases ? 

rats's tails, fooys's hats* girls's books. 
I suppose you think they are not right. No, they are 
wrong. We do not say " ratses tails/' " boyses hats/' 
&e., but " rats' tails," u boys' ha is/' &c. Thus you see the 
sign that means of, or belonging to, sometimes goes with- 
out the s, and is simply this ( ? ). 

Written Exercise. 

1. Copy the following, and add to each its longer equiva- 
lent, underscoring the phrase, belonging to: 

[Model : 

rats" tails ; or, tail s belonging to rats. 

horses' heads ; or, heads belonging to horses. 

boys' hats ; or, hats belonging to boys.] 



A PRIMEIl OF LANGUAGE. 171 

1. rats' tails. 6. squirrels' teeth. 11. pupils' books. 

2. horses' heads. 7. carpenters' tools. 12. grocers' wagons. 

3. boys' hats. 8. ladies' cabin. 13. elephants' tusks. 

4. pigs' feet. 9. Forefathers' day. 14 sailors' yarns. 

5. rabbits' ears. 10. birds' nests. 15. girls' bonnets. 

2. 2HT The sign ( 9 s) 9 or simply (')> means o/, or belonging to. 

Oral Exercise. 

Model : 

Rats' tails ; or, tails belonging to rats. These two phrases are 
equivalent, or, mean the same. In the phrase, " rats' tails," the 
apostrophe is used alone. 

Repeat the rule in concert. 

LESSON VI. 

Some Puzzling J^orms. 
[To be read in class.} 

Perhaps you noticed that i 1 1 the examples of Lesson V. 
all the words that are apostrophized are plural nouns,* 
while all previous examples in this chapter are singular 
nouns;! and perhaps you judged from this that all plurals 
take the apostrophe alone, thus ('), while all singulars 
take the full sign, ('s). This is nearly true, but not quite. 
It is true of all plurals that end in s ; but there are quite a 
good many plurals that do not end in s, as men, women, 
mice. Thus we do not say 

men" coats ivomen' shaivls mice! feet 

as we say 

boys coats girls" shawls cats\feet 
but 

men's coats women's shawls mice's feet 
just as we say 

a man's coat a woman's shawl a mouse's feet 



: " Plural " nouns are those that express more than one thing* 
' u Singular " nouns are those that express but one thing. 



172 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Written Exercise. 

1, Copy the following, and add to each its shorter equi- 
valent, underscoring of: 

Model : 

sheep's wool ; or, the wool of sheep.] 

1. men's clothing, 5. boatmen's songs. 9. firemen's hats. 

2. women's dresses. 6. cattle's fodder. 10. mice's ears. 

3. oxen's horns. 7. geese's feathers. 11. sheep's eyes. 

4. children's toys. 8. the people's choice. 12. hackmen's charges. 

2. (EiF Plural nouns ending" in s take the apostrophe alone, ( 5 ); 
all others take the full sign, ( ? s)« 

Oral Exercise. 
[Model : • 

Sheep's wool ; or, the wool of sheep. These are equivalent 
phrases. The sign % means of, or belonging to. 

Repeat the rule of the lesson. 



LESSON VII. 

Miscellaneous Examples. 
Written Exercise, i 

1. Copy the following, and add to each its shorter equi- 
valent, underscoring the. preposition of : 

[Model : 

A pin's head ; or, the head of a pin.] 

1. an eagle's beak. 5. pigs' feet. 9. rabbits' ears. 

2. a mother's love. 6. a pig's feet. 10. a rabbit's ears. 

3. rats' tails. 7. boys' hats. 11. squirrels' teeth. 

4. a rat's tail. 8. a boy's hat, 12. a squirrel's teeth. 

2. S3i~The apostrophe is always placed at the end of the 
tvord that is to he apostrophized,* and the added s, (when used), 
is always placed after the apostrophe. 



* To " apostrophize " a word is to mark it ivith an apostrophe. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 173 

Oral Exercise. 
Models : 

1. a pin's head ; or, the head of a pin. These are equivalent 
phrases. The sign 's means of, or, belonging to. 

2: rats^ tails ^or, the tails of rats. These are equivalent phrases. 
In the phrase "rats' tails," the apostrophe is used alone, because 
11 rats " is & plural ending in s. 

Repeat the rule of the lesson. 



LESSON VIII. 

The Apostkophe in Plural Nouns. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Copy the following, and add to each its shorter equi- 
valent, underscoring' the last word : 

[Model : 

men's clothing ; or, the clothing of men.] 

1. girls' shoes. 7 cattle's fodder. 13. mice's food. 

2. women's dresses. 8. horses' fodder. 14. rats' food. 

3. sheep's wool. 9. geese's feathers. 15. dogs' paws. 

4. lambs' wool. 10. ducks' feathers. 16. policemen's clubs. 

5. oxen's horns. 11. The People's Line.17. the boy's clothing. 

6. cows' horns. 12. OldFolks'Concert. 18. the boys' clothing. 

2. JQF* " The hoy's clothing " means, the clothing of the hoy ; 
" the hoys' clothing " means, the clothing of the boys. 

3. &y The apostrophe is always placed at the end of the 
word that is to he apostrophized, and the added s, (when used), 
is always placed after the apostrophe. 

Oral Exercise. 
Models : 

1. The boy's clothing ; or, the clothing of the hoy. These are 
equivalent phrases. In the phrase, " the boy's clothing," " boy " is 
the word to be apostrophized, and the sign, 's, is placed after it. 

2. The boys' clothing ; or, the clothing of the boys. These are 
equivalent phrases. In the phrase, " the boys' clothing," " boys " is 



174 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE/ 

the word to be apostrophized, and being a plural in s, the apostrophe 
alone is placed after it. 

Repeat rule No. 3 



LESSON IX. 

The Apostrophe in Plural Nouns. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Copy the following phrases, mid add to each its pro- 
per equivalent : 

1. girls' sports, 8. sheep's feed. 

2. the shoes of girls. 9. horses' feed. 

3. the trowels of masons. 10. the milk of goats. 

4. men's clothing. 11. ships' masts. 

5. boys' clothing. 12. the sails of vessels. 

6. the caps of firemen. 13. the tusks of elephants. 

7. merchants' stores. 14 the pens of pupils. 

2. 2£P~ The apostrophe is always placed at the end of the word 
that is to be apostrophized, and the added s, (when used), is always 
placed after the apostrophe. 

Oral Exercise. 
Read the next lesson. 



LESSON X. 

The Reason Why. 

[To be read in class.] 

In all the examples of the last nine lessons there are 
two equivalents ; as, 

the ship's deck, 
the deck of (or, belonging to) a ship. 

One of these phrases has the apostrophe, while the other 
has of. The phrase that lias of tells us what the word is 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 175 

which must be apostrophized when we turn the phrase 
into its equivalent, Tims in the phrase, 

the deck of a ship, 

"ship" is the word we must apostrophize when we turn 
the phrase into its equivalent, 

a ship's deck. 

Try again : 

mens hats. 

Are you in doubt whether to write it 

men's hats, or, mens' hats J 

Let us see. Turning it into its equivalent 

the hats o f men, 

we discover that <; men " is the word to be apostrophized. 
Placing the apostrophe at the end of the word, (as the rule 
directs), we have 

men', 

then applying the other part of the rule, that the added s, 
(when used), is always placed after the apostrophe, we have 
the completed form 

men's hats. 

Once more : 

girls sports. 

Shall we write it 

girl's sports, or, girls' sports ? 

Turning it into its equivalent, 

the sports of girls , 

we discover that " girls " is the word to be apostrophized. 
Placing the apostrophe at the end of the word, as the rule 
directs, we have 

girls 5 . 
The added s is not used in this case, for the plural "girls'* 



1T6 A PRIMEK OF LANGUAGE, 

ends in s. We do not say, " girls'g (girlses) sports ; " it 
would not sound well. So, omitting the s, we have 

girls' sports. 



LESSON XL 

The Reason Why. 

Exercise Partly Written and Partly Ch*al. 

Write out the reasons tor placing the apostrophe in the 
third and fourth exam pies of Lesson VIII., and give the 
reasons for the rest of the examples of the lesson orally : 
[Models : 

1. Men's clothing" ; or, the clothing of men. ct Men " is the word 
to be apostrophized. Placing the apostrophe and s after it, we have 
the required form, men's clothing*. 

2. Girls' shoes ; or, the shoes of girls. " Girls " is the word to 
be apostrophized. Placing the apostrophe after it, we have the re- 
quired form, girls' sho e s. 

LESSON XII. 

A Drill Lesson. 

Written Exercise. 

Coyy the following summary of the preceding lesson : 

Summary. 

In the examples of Lesson VIIL, the words to be apos- 
trophized are : 

1. girls. 5. oxen. 9. geese. 13. mice. 16 policemen. 

2. women. 6. cows. 10. ducks. 14. rats. 17. boy. 

3. sheep. 7. cattle. 11. People. 15. dogs. 18. boys. 

4. lambs. 8, horses. 12. Folks. 

Placing the apostrophe at the end of each word, (to- 
gether with the added s, when required), we have the 
completed forms as follows : 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 177 

1. girls' shoes 7. cattle's fodder. 13. mice's food. 

2. women's dresses. 8. horses' fodder. 14 rats' food. 

3. sheep's wool. 9. geese's feathers. 15. dogs' paws. 

4. lambs' wool. 10. ducks' feathers. 16. policemen's clubs. 

5. oxen's horns. 11. The People's Line. 17. the boy's clothing. 

6. cows' horns. 12. Old Folks' Concert. 18. the boys' clothing. 

Board Exercise. 

Two pupils pass to the board. If there are two front 
boards available, one pupil goes to one, the other pupil to 
the other. No. 1 writes, from the teacher's dictation, 
girls' shoes, and gives the reason for placing the sign, thus : 

" Girls' shoes " means the shoes of girls. " Girls " is therefore the 
word to be apostrophized. Placing the apostrophe after it, as the 
rule directs, we have g-ir-l-s- apostrophe. 

No. 1 then retires, a third pupil goes to the board, while 
No. 2 writes, from the teacher's dictation, women's dresses, 
and gives the reason for placing the sign, thus : 

" Women's dresses " means the dresses of women. " Women " is 
therefore the word to be apostrophized. Placing the apostrophe 
after it, together with the required s, as the rule directs, we have 
w-o-m-e-n- apostrophe- and s. 

Other pupils follow in the same way. 



LESSON XIII. 

A Test-Lesson. 
Written Exercise. 
Correct and copy the following: 

1. my dogs nose. 6. womens hoods, 

2. rats tails. 7. a years work. 

3. mens hats. 8. two years work. 

4. a birds wings. 9. sheeps wool 

5. boys shoes. 10. a ships crew. 



178 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercise. 

Recite according to the models given in the board exercise of the 
preceding lesson. 

LESSON XIV. 
A Test-Lesson. 
Written Exercise. 
Correct and copy the following : 

1. pigs tongues, 6. the moons light. 

2. calves tongues. 7. geeses feathers. 

3. mices food. 8. cows tails. 

4. a lions mane. 9. oxens tails. 

5. lions skins. 10. the earths surface. 

Oral Exercise. 

Recite according to the models given in the board exercise of 
Lesson XII. 



LESSON XV. 

Review : The Simplest Form ('s). 

Written Exercise. 

1. Change the following expressions to simpler ones, 
using the sign J s, and remembering that it is equivalent to 
the phrase belonging to : 

1. the nose belonging to your dog. 

2. the hat belonging to father. 

3. the shoe belonging to our horse. 

4. the book belonging to Mary. 

5. the fins belonging to a fish. 

6. the feathers belonging to a robin. 

2. &T The apostrophe and s (',$) joined to a word signify be- 
longing to. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 179 

3. Change the following expressions to simpler ones, 
remembering that the sign f s is equivalent to the preposi- 
tion of. 

1. the head of ray dolly. 4. the hum of a musquito. 

2. the cradle of our baby. 5. the roar of a, lion. 

3. the light of the moon. 6. the squeal of a pig. 

4. 2HF* u Of" means belonging to. 

Oral Exercise. 
Models : 

1. Tour dog's nose. The sign fs) is equivalent to the phrase, be- 
longing to. 

[Repeat the first general statement of the lesson.] 

2. My dolly's head. The sign ('s) is equivalent to of. 
[Repeat the second general statement of the lesson.] 

LESSON XVI. 
Review of Lesson IV. 



LESSON XVII. 

Review : the Apostrophe in Plural Nouns. 

Written Exercise. 

Plural nouns in s require the apostrophe without s, ('). 

1. Write the apostrophized equivalents of the following : 

1, tails of rats, 3. eyes of fishes. 5. hoops of girls. 

2. heads of cats. 4. ears of pigs. 6. skates of boys. 

2. §W Plural nouns ending in 8 take the apostrophe alone ('). 

3. Plural nouns not ending in s require the full sign (\s). 
Write the apostrophized equivalents of the following : 

1. boots of men. 4. wool of sheep. 

2. si) awls of women. 5 antlers of deer. 

3. cries of children. 6. horns of oxen. 

4. $£T Plural nouns not ending in s take the full sign ('s). 



180. A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercise. 
Models : 

1. Rats' tails. " Rats " takes the apostrophe alone, because it is a 
plural noun ending in s. 

[Repeat the first rule of the lesson.] 

2. Men's boots. " Men " takes the apostrophe and s in the regu- 
lar way. 

[Repeat the second rule of the lesson.] 

LESSON XVIII. 
Review of Lesson VII. 

LESSON XIX. 
Review of Lesson VHI. 

LESSON XX. 
Review of Lesson IX. 

LESSON XXL 
Review of Lessons XI. and XII. 

LESSON XXII. 
Review of Lesson XIIL 

LESSON XXIII. 

Summary of Rules, Definitions and Principles. 

1. The apostrophe and s ('s) joined to a word signify be- 
longing to. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 181 

What is said about the apostrophe and s ('s) ? 

2. " Of" means belonging to. 
11 Of " means what ? 

3. The sign 's means of, or belonging to. 
The sign 's means what ? 

4. Plural nouns ending in 5 take the apostrophe alone ( ? ). 
What is the rule about plural nouns ending in s ? 

5. Plural nouns not ending in s take the full sign ('5). 

What is the rule about plural nouns not ending in s ? 

6. To " apostrophize " a word means, in grammar, to 
mark it with an apostrophe. 

What does " apostrophize" mean ? 

7. The apostrophe is always placed at the end of the 
word that is to be apostrophized, and the added s, (when 
used), is always placed after the apostrophe. 

Give the general rule for placing the apostrophe. 

8. " The boy's clothing " means the clothing of the boy ; 
" the boys' clothing" means the clothing of the boys. 

" The boy's clothing " means what ? " The boys' clothing " means 
what ? 



LESSON XXIV. 
Written Examination. 

1. What is an apostrophe? 

2. What does the word John's mean ? 

3. Define the word equivalent. 

4. The phrase belonging to is equivalent to what pre- 
position ? 

5. What are the two equivalents of the phrase my dog's 

nose ? 



182 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

6. Nouns that mean but one are called what ? 

7. Nouns that mean more than one are called what ? 

8. What do you mean, in grammar, by apostrophizing a 
word ? 

9. Write the short equivalent of the phrase, tails of rats. 

10. Give the rule for apostrophizing u rats " in the pre- 
ceding question. 

11. Write the short equivalent of the phrase, wool of 
sheep. 

12. Give the rule for apostrophizing "sheep" in the 
preceding answer, 

13. 14 and 15. Insert the apostrophe properly in the 
following phrases : 

a rats haii\ a pigs feet. a boys clothes, 
rats hair. pigs feet, boys clothes. 

16. Give the full rule for placing the apostrophe. 

17, 18 and 19. Insert the apostrophe properly in the 
following phrases : 

mens shoes. slieeps wool. oxens horns, 

girls shoes. lambs wool. cows horns. 

20 and 21. Give the reason for placing the apostrophe 
in the phrase, men's shoes. 

22 and 23. Give the reason for placing the apostrophe 
in the phrase, boys' shoes. 

24 and 25. Why do we not write, boy's shoes ? 



A PRIMER OP LANGUAGE. 183 

CHAPTER IX. 

NUMBER. 



LESSON I. 

Singular and Plural. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Write ten names, each meaning only one thing, as 
boy, city. 

2. Write ten names, each meaning more than one tiling, 
as boys, cities. 

3. 2SF* Words that mean but one thing" are said to be of the 
singular number* 

4. fiy Words that mean more than one thing are said to be 
of the plural number. 

5. Copy the following lists : 

Singular Number. Plural Number. Singular Number. Plural Number. 
man men woman women 

girl girls baby babies 

ox oxen mouse mice 

Oral Exercise. 

Models : 

1. Boy means but one boy. 
[Repeat the first general statement.] 

2. Boys means more than one boy. 
[Repeat the second general statement.] 

3. Man is of the singular number, because it means but one man. 

4. Men is of the plural number, because it means more than one 
man. 



184 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



LESSON II. 
How the Plural is Formed. 
Written Exercise. 
1. Write the plural of the following nouns : 



dog 


pen 


rat 


Pig 


pipe 


street 


ham 


horse 


hook 


barn 


bone 


chicken 


finger 


road 


duck 


cat 


tub 


nail 



2. %iW Most nouns form the plural by adding S to the singu- 
lar. 

3. Write the singular of the following nouns : 

cows eyes thumbs shovels birds lamps 

desks mules carpets eagles pencils sleighs j 

hawks owls months wagons hoes snakes 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

Dogs. This noun is of the plural number. It is formed by adding 
s to the singular. 

[Repeat the rule of the lesson in concert.] 



LESSON III. 

How the Plural is Formed. 
[To be read in class,] 

Observe that in the lists of words given in Lesson II, 
there is no increase of syllables in forming the plural ; thus, 
dog, dogs, (both monosyllables*), eagle, eagles, (both dis- 
syllables), and so on. But many words form the plural 
by adding es to the singular, and thus get another syllable ; 
as, class, classes ; bush, bushes ; box, boxes. 

* See page io. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



185 







Written 


Exercise. 




1, Copy the 


following, and 


write the plur 


als — (ruling as 


in model] 


) ' 








loss 


lass 


glass 


pass gas 


ash 


dish 


lash 


brush 


boss mass 


grass 


press 


cress 


arch 


ditch wish 


watch 


guess 


dress 


mess 


miss moss 


latch 


patch 


stitch 


witch 


cross kiss 


bliss 


dish 


waltz 


ax 


box bench 


fox 


tax 


six 


inch 


pinch porch 


church 


Model : 










Sing. 


Plur. 1 


Sing. 


Plur. 


lass 




lasses 


ash 


askes 


disk 




dishes 


fox 


foxes 


cross 




crosses 


six 


sixes 



2. HP Some nouns form the plural by adding" es to the singu- 
lar, making another syllable.* 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

Lass, lasses. In this example, the plural is formed by adding es 

to the singular, thus making another syllable. 

[Repeat the rule of the lesson.] 

LESSON IV. 
How thr Plural is Formed 
Written Exercise. 
1. Copy the following tables : 



Plurals lm ies. 


Sing. 


Plur. . 


r Sing. 


Plur. 


tabby 

piracy 

lady 

cooky 

lily 


tabbies 

piracies 

ladies 

cookies 

lilies 


army 
pony 
berry 
daisy 
navy 


armies 

ponies 

berries 

daisies 

navies 











* See Appendix, Section II. 



186 



A PRIMEK OF LANGUAGE. 



Plurals in eys. 



Sing. 



key 

turkey 

monkey 

donkey 

jockey 



Plur. 



keys 

turkeys 

monkeys 

donkeys 

jockeys 



Sing. 


Plur. 


alley 

valley 

money 

chimney 

attorney 


alleys 

valleys 

moneys 

chimneys 

attorneys 



[Observe that all of the above nouns end in y in the 
singular, but they form their plurals in two different ways. 
All in the first list form the plural by changing y to i, and 
adding es# All in the second list form the plural by 
simply adding s, Observe the two lists closely, and try 
to find out why this is so. Then copy the following table, 
filling the blanks as you think is right] : 



Plurals in . 


Plurals 


IN . 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


key 




baby 


• 


abbey 




fairy 




kidney 




city 




money 




cherry 




lackey 




I puppy 





Oral Exercise. 

Models : 

1. Tabby forms the plural by changing y to i and adding es ; thus : 
t-a-b-b-i-e-s. 

2. Key forms the plural by adding s ; thus, Jc-e-y-s. 



LESSON V. 

How the Plural is Formed. 
[To be read in class.] 

Perhaps you were at a loss how to form the plurals of 
the ten nouns of the exercise given at the close of the pre- 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



187 



ceding lesson. Let us examine the two lists given at the 
beginning of that lesson. We first notice that every word 
of the second list ends in ey, while not one of the first list 
ends in ey. They end in by, cy, dy, ky, ly, my, ny, ry, sy, 
and vy. That is, they all end in y, with one of the follow- 
ing letters before it : b, c, d, k, l, m, n, r, s, v. You remem- 
ber, I trust, that the letters of the alphabet are arranged 
in two classes, vowels and consonants — the vowels being 
a, e, i, O) u, and sometimes w and y ; while the rest are 
consonants. The above ten letters, then, b, c, d, &c, are 
all consonants. Thus we get the following rules : 



Written Exercise. 

1. Jty Nouns ending in ey form the plural by adding s.* 

2. iSF" Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant! form the 
plural by cJianging j to i 9 and adding es. 

3. Copy the following table, filling up the column of 
plurals correctly : 

Plurals in eys and ies. 



Sing. 



key 

baby 

dey 

nursery 

covey 

candy 



Plur. 



Sing. 



dandy 

whiskey 

grey 

story 

kersey 

folly 



Plur. 



* Note to the teacher ; This rule would be much more comprehensive if 
made to cover such words as day, boy, &c. It would then read : Nouns ending 
in y preceded by a waive I form the plural by adding s. But as children have no 
difficulty in forming the plurals of day, boy, &c, and are perplexed by turkey, 
monkey, and the like, it seems best, for the present, to give them the above 
short rule for words in ey. Rules that are very similar in phraseology are liable 
to be confounded. 

\ " Preceded by a consonant " means having a consonant standing before it. 



188 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



Oral Exercise. 
Repeat the two rules of the lesson in concert. 
Recite after the following models : 

1. Key forms the plural by adding s, because it ends in ey ; thus, 
k-e-y~s. 

2. Baby forms the plural by changing y to i and adding es t because 
it ends in y preceded by a consonant ; thus, b-a-b-i-e-s. 



LESSON VI. 

How the Plural is Formed : a Test Lesson. 
Written Exercise. 

1. Copy the following table, and opposite each word 
write its proper plural : 



Plurals in eys and ies. 


Sing. 


Tlur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


key 




tourney 




dolly 




bey 




bunny 




dummy 




pity 




ferry 




posy 




navy 




dickey 




chimney 




turkey 




turnkey 




body 




lobby 




pulley 




volley 




muminy 




tidy 




journey 




fly 




survey 




whimsey 





2. I&3F" Nouns ending in ey form the plural by adding s. 

3. IS?" Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant form the 
plural by changing j to i, and adding es. 

Oral Exercise. 

Recite as in the preceding lesson. 



A PKIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



189 



LESSON VII. 
Some Other Plurals. 
Written Exercise. 
1. Copy the following table : 





Change / to v, 


AND ADD s OR es. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


calf 

wharf 

wife 


calves 

wharves 

wives 


elf 

beef 

sheaf 


elves 

beeves 

sheaves 



2. fiHT Some nouns ending 1 in forfe change /to v for the plural. 

3. Copy the following table, filling in the plurals : 

Change / to v t and add s or es. 



Sing. 



knife 

loaf 

half 

leaf 

life 



Plur. 



Sing. 



wolf 

thief 

elf 

self 

shelf 



Plur. 



Oral Exercise, 



Models : 



1. Calf forms the plural by changing /to v, and adding es ; thus, 
c-a-l-v-e-s. 

2. Wife forms the plural by changing/ to v, and adding s ; thus^ 
w-iv e-s. 



Repeat the rule of the lesson. 



190 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



1. Copy the 


LESSON VIII. 
I^ome Other Plurals. 
Written Exercise. 
following table : 




/ Remains Unchanged in the Plural. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


proof 

hoof 

grief 




safe 
fife 
strife 





2. %W Some nouns in /or fe retain the /in the plural. 

3. Copy the following table, filling the blanks : 

/ Remains Unchanged in the Plural. 



Sing. 



handkerchief 
roof 
chief 
clef 



Plur. 



Sing. 



gulf 
dwarf 
scarf 
reef 



Plur. 



Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

Proof forms the plural by adding s, the/ remaining unchanged ; 
thus, p-r-o-o-f-s. 

Repeat the rule of the lesson. 



LESSON IX. 
Irregular Plurals. 
Written Exercise. 

As we have seen in the last preceding lessons, nearly 
all nouns have their plurals in .9. There are a few that 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



191 



have not, and for this reason are said to form their plurals 
irregularly. 

1. Copy the following table : 

Irregular Plurals. 



Sing. 



woman 
ox 

dormouse 
doorman 



Plur. 



women 
oxen 
dormice 
doormen 



Sing. 


Plur. 


goose 


geese 


die 


dice 


louse 


lice 


hackman 


hackinen 



2. S®~ A few nouns form the plural irregularly. 

Oral Exercise. 

Model : 

Woman forms its plural irregularly ; thus, w-o-m-e-n. 
Repeat the rule. 



LESSON X. 

Some Other Forms. 

Written Exercise. 

I. Copy the following', and observe the plurals 

1. A wolf killed a sheep. (Sing.) 

2. A wolf killed ten sheep. (Plur.) 

3. The hunter shot a deer. (Sing,) 

4. The hunter shot two deer. (Plur.) 

5. A fisherman caught a salmon. (Sing.) 

6. A fisherman caught a hundred salmon. (Plur.) 

7. A snipe has a long bill. (Sing.) 

8. Snipe have long bills. (Plur.) 

9. A mackerel is a fine fish. (Sing.) 
10. Mackerel swim in schools. (Plur.) 

II. This shad weighs five pounds. (Sing.) 
12. Shad are caught in nets. (Plur.) 



192 PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

2. £3F" A few nouns are the same in the singular and the plural ; 
asj sheep, salmon, snipe, &c. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

A wolf killed a sheep. A wolf killed ten sheep. " Sheep " is the 
same in singular and plural. 
Repeat the rule. 



LESSON XL 

Nouns that Have no Singular 

Written Exercise. 

1. A few words are used in the plural only. Copy the 
following, and consider whether you ever heard the itali- 
cized words used in the singular : 

1. Oats are fed to horses. 

2. Bridget, are the ashes * sifted ? 

3. Josie is proud of his new clothes. 

4. Your trousers are mended. 

5. Are these cold victuals for the beggar ? 

6. The pincers are in the box. 

7. His thanks were sincere. 

8. A shovel and tongs stood in the corner, 

9. Baby has the measles. 

10. These scissors are mine. 

11. Charles looks well in white pantaloons. 

12. The fireworks were a success. 

2. JSP A few nouns are used in the plural only ; as, scissors 9 
clothes, thanks, measles 9 &c. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

Oats are fed to horses. " Oats " is used in the plural only. 

Repeat the rule. 



* This word is sometimes used in the singular, though not in the sense here 
intended. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 193 

LESSON XII. 

Singular and Plural in Verbs. 

[To be read in class.] 

The squirrel eats nuts. 
The squirrels eat nuts. 

We have seen in the hist preceding lessons that most 
nouns change their forms a little when they pass from 
singular to plural ; that is to say, they change their spell- 
ing. Verbs behave somewhat in the same way. Thus we 
have for the noun 

Singular. Plural. 

squirrel squirrels 

and for the verb 

Singular. Plural. 

eats eat 

But observe a curious thing : while the noun has an added 
s in the plural, the verb has an added s in the singular. 
Thus, we say : 

The squirrels eat. (Plural). 

The squirrel eats. (Singular). 

When we speak of a verb being singular, or plural, we 
do not mean the same as when we speak of a noun being 
singular, or plural. In case of a noun, its form shows 
whether itis itself singular, or plural; but in case of a 
verb, its form shows whether its subject is singular,, or 
plural.* In other words, when a noun, the subject of a 
sentence, passes from singular to plural, or from plural to 
singular, and so changes its form, the predicate verb 
changes its form also. There is a kind of agreement be- 
tween them. The verb may be said to obey the noun. 
When the noun, by passing from plural to singular, loses 



*The idea of unity or plurality (that is to say, the idea of number) does not 
belong to a verb. 



194 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

an s, the verb gains one. When the noun, by passing from 
singular to plural gains an s, the verb loses one. As if the 
noun, when it luis no use for the s, handed it over to the 
verb; while the verb, when the noun wants the s again, 
handed it back. Thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

The horse trots. The horses trot. 

In the first sentence, the little floating letter, not being 
needed by the subject, goes to the verb. In the second 
sentence, being now needed by the subject, it goes back 
to the subject, as it were. This curious process is fully 
shown in the following sentences. Copy them, filling all 
blanks : 

Written Exercise. 

1 • Singular. Plural. 

1. The bird sings. The birds sing. 

2. The girl plays. The girls play. 

3. The boy skates. The boys skate. 

4. The swallow . The swallow T s fly. 

5. The fish swims. The fishes — — . 

6. The dog . The dogs . 

7. The cat . The cats . 

8. The carpenter . The carpenters . 

2. 3SF* Most verbs form the singular by adding- s to the plural. 



Important Exception. 
When the pronoun I or you is the subject of a sentence, 
the verb behaves differently. Thus we say, 

I eat You eat 

not 

I eats You eats 

Model : Oral Exercise. 

(Sing.) The bird sings. (Plur.) The birds sing. The verb 
" sing " forms the singular by adding s to the plural. 
Repeat the rule. 



A l'KIMER OF LANGUAGE. 195 



LESSON XIII. 
Singular and Plural in Verbs : Irregular Forms. 
[To be read in class.] 

Most verbs, as we have just seen, make their singular 

by adding s to the plural. There are a few, however, 
that act very differently : as, 

Sing. Plur. 

is are 

has have 

was were 

Take the following : 

! Washington is remembered with gratitude. / 
Lafayette is remembered with gratitude. C 

Washington and Lafayette are remembered witli grati- 
tude. 

{ California has a delightful winter climate. # 
) Florida has a delightful winter climate, t 

California and Florida have a delightful winter climate. 

!A lion was captured by the hunters. # 
A tiger was captured by the hunters. ( 

A lion and a tiger were captured by the hunters. 



Observe the six sentences above that are enclosed by 

braces, as these marks — < > -—are called. Every one 

of them is a statement about only one person, place, or 
thing. 

Observe also the verbs used : 

is has was 

Now observe the other three sentences. Every one of 



196 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

tliem is a statement about more than one person, place, or 
thing. Observe, too, the verbs used hi these sentences : 
are have were 

It would not be correct to say : 

Washington and Lafayette is remembered with grati- 
tude. 

California and Florida has a delightful winter climate. 

A lion and a tiger was captured by the hunters. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Copy the above nine examples, beginning with, 
" Washington is remembered," &c. 

2. 8kP" Is, lias j and was can only he used when the statement 
is ahont one person, place, or thing. 

3. $W* Are, have, and were can only he used when the state- 
ment is ahout more than one person, place, or thing. 

Oral Exercise. 
Models : 

1. Washington is remembered with gratitude. 

2. Lafayette is remembered with gratitude. 

These two sentences may be united into one sentence, thus : 

3. Washington and Lafayette are remembered with gratitude. 

In the first and second sentences, " is " is used because the state- 
ment is about one person. In the third sentence " are J1 is used be- 
cause the statement is about more than one person. 

Repeat the two rules in concert. 



LESSON XIV. 
Is, Ark ; Has, Have ; Was, Were. 
[To be read in class.] 
Take the phrase, 

was gone all clay, 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 197 

and compose two sentences with it, thus : 

FatSier was gone all day. Mother was gone all day. 
Then unite these two sentences into one, thus: 
Father and mother WERE gone all day. 

Written Exercise. 

L Treat each of the following phrases in the same way : 

1. has measles. 4 lias pet rabbits. 

2. is going to the party. 5. is quite well. 

3. was absent yesterday, 6. was promoted. 

Models : 

was gone all day, 

1. Father was gone all day. 

2. Mother was gone all day. 

3. Father and Mother were gone all day. 

has been sick, 

1. Baby has been sick. 

2. Auntie has been sick. 

3. Baby and Auntie hare been sick. 

is a good scholar, 

1. Mary is a good scholar. 

2. Charles is a good scholar. 

3. Mary and Charles are good scholars. 

2. $W Is 9 has, and wets are singular forms. 

3. OF* Are, have, and were are plural forms. 

Oral Exercise. 

Father was gone all day. 
Mother was gone all day. 

These two sentences may be united into one sentence, thus : 

Father and Mother were gone all day, 

In the first and second sentence " was " is singular, and is used 
because the statement is about one person. In the third sentence, 
" were " is plural, and is used because the statement is about more 
than one person. 

Repeat the tw T o rules of the lesson. 



198 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

LESSON XV. 
Is and Are ; Has and EIave ; Was and Were. 
[To be read in class .] 

Take the following* sentence : 

New York and Philadelphia are great cities, 
and separate it into two sentences, thus : 
New York is a great city. 
Philadelphia is a great city. 

Written Eocercise. 

1. Treat the following sentences in the same way : 

1. Croquet and baseball are favorite games. 

2. Boston and Baltimore have a large commerce. 

3. Sherman and Sheridan were successful commanders. 

Compose a sentence containing* "are," a sentence con- 
taining* "have," and a sentence containing " were/ 7 some- 
what like the above, and treat them in the same way. 

2. 2l^~ Is 9 has, and was are singular forms. 

3. &§*" Are, have, and were are plural forms. 

Oral Exercise. 

Model : 

New York and Philadelphia are great cities. 

This sentence may be separated into two sentences, thus : 

1. New York is a great city. 

2. Philadelphia is a great city. 

In the first sentence " are " is plural, and is used because the state- 
ment is about more than one place. In the second and third sen- 
tences, ' is " is singular, and is used because the statement is about 
one place. 

Repeat the two rules. 



A TRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 199 



LESSON XVI. 

Regular Verb Forms : a Practice-Lesson. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Copy the following' sentences, and add to each pair a 

third by uniting the two together. [Observe in the model 

how the verb changes in the third sentence.] 



-. i The orange grows in Florida. 
' ( The lemon grows in Florida. 



The lemon grows in Florida. 
Baby sleeps in the day-time. 
Pussy sleeps in the day-time. 



o ( Gold glitters. 



Mica glitters. 

{George tells the truth. 
Mary tells the truth. 
The fox runs fast. 
The dog runs fast. 
The mason builds houses. 
The carpenter builds houses. 

Model : 

1. The thrush sings sweetly. 

2. The robin sings sweetly. 

3. The thrush and the robin sing sweetly. 

2. JST Most verbs form the singular by adding s to the plural. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

1. The thrush sings sweetly. 

2. The robin sings sweetly. 

These two sentences may be united into one, thus : 

3. The thrush and the robin sing sweetly. 

In the first and second sentences, the verb is singular, because the 
statement is about one bird. In the third sentence, the verb is plural, 
because the statement is about more than one bird. The singular 
" sings " is formed by adding s to the plural " sing." 

Kepeat the rule. 



200 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

LESSON XVII. 

Regular Verb-Forms : a Practice-Lesson. 

Written Exercise, 

1. Copy the following sentences, and add two others to 
each one by separating it into two parts. | Observe in the 
model how the verb changes in the second and third sen- 
tences.] 

1. Charles and James like to skate. 

2. Eva and Ida ride horseback. 

3. The banana and the date grow in the tropics. 

4. The lion and the tiger live in hot climates, 

5. The pine and the oak abound in the United States. 

6. The owl and the bat sleep in the day-time. 

7. Fannie and Freddy spend the summer in the country. 

Model : 

Charles and James like to skate. 
Charles likes to skate. 
James likes to skate. 

2. j®" Most verbs form the singular by adding s to the plural. 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 
Charles and James like to skate. 

This sentence may be separated into two, thus : 
Charles likes to skate. 
James likes to skate. 

In the first sentence the verb is plural because the statement is 
about more than one person. In the second and third sentences the 
verb is singular, because the statement is about one person. The 
singular " likes " is formed by adding s to the plural " like." 

Repeat the rule. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 201 

LESSON XVIII. 

Singular and Plural in Verbs. 

[To be read in class.] 

Verbs change their forms for singular 01/ plural in obe- 
dience to their noun-subjects, just as nouns themselves do ; 
thus: usually \>y adding^ as, 

(Verbs.) eat, eats; migrans. 

(Nouns.) gir] ? girls: boy, boys. 

Sometimes by adding es, **s, 

(Verbs.) go, goes ; do, does. 

(Nouns.) potato, potatoes ; motto, mottoes. 

Sometimes by changing y to i ? and adding es, as, 
(Verbs.) try, tries: dry, dries. 
(Nouns.) city, cities; butterfly, butterflies. 

And sometimes a different word is used, as, 




Singular. 


Plural. 


is, 


are. 


was, 
has, 


were, 
hare. 


mouse, 
foot, 


mice, 
feet. 


man, 


men. 



Written Ewercise. 

1. Write a, singular and a plural sentence with each of 
the following verbs, according to the model : 

walk do fry are 

playl mix deny were 

2. Write a singular and a plural sentence with each of 
the following verbs, according to the model : 

smiles goes tries am 

sleeps catches replies has 



202 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Model : 

Plural. Singular. 

Bears walk. The bear walks. 

Monkeys play. The monkey plays. 

&c. &c. 

Ladies smile. The lady smiles. 

Babies sleep. The baby sleeps. 

&c. &c. 

3. ASF Terbs change their forms for singular and plural, as 
nouns do ; but the singular of the yerb corresponds* to the plural 
of the noun. 

Oral Exercise. 

Model : 

Plural, bears walk; singular, the bear walks. Verbs change 
their forms for singular and plural, as nouns do. 
Repeat the rule. 



LESSON XIX. 

Summary. 

f To be read in class : rules to be repeated in concert] 

The close agreement between the noun and the verb in 
their change of form to express change of number, is 
shown in the following double summary : 

NOUNS. VERBS. 

I. Plurals in s. I. Singulars in s. 

Most nouns form the plural by Most verbs form the singular by 
S to the singular, thus : adding s to the plural, thus : 

Plur. Sing. 

eat, eats. 

run, runs. 

Sing. 

The boy eats. 

The girl runs. 

II. Singulars in es. 

Some verbs form the singular by 

Corresponds" means agrees. 



Sing. 


Plur. 




boy, 


boys. 




girl, 


girls. 




Plur. 






The boys 


i eat. 




The girls 


run. 




II. Plurals in es. 






Some nouns form the 


plural by 



A PRIMEK OF LANGUAGE. 



203 



adding es to the singular, making adding es to the plural, making 



another syllable ; thus, 

Sing. Plur. 

witch witches 

fox foxes 

Plur. 

The witches guess. 

The foxes watch. 



another syllable ; thus, 

Plur. Sing. 

guess guesses 

watch watches 

Sing. 

The witch guesses. 

The fox watches. 



III. y preceded by a consonant. 

Nouns ending in y preceded by a 
consonant form the plural by chang- 
ing j to i and adding es \ thus, 
Sing. Plur. 

pussy pussies 

polly pollies 

Plur. 
Pussies cry. 
Pollies copy. 



III. y preceded by a consonant. 

Verbs ending in y preceded by a 
consonant form the singular by 
changing y to i and adding es $ thus, 
Plur. Sing. 

cry cries 

copy * copies 

Sing. 
Pussy cries. 
Polly copies. 



IT. y preceded by a vowel. 

Nouns ending in y preceded by a 
vowel form the plural by adding s ; 
thus, 

Sing. Plur. 

donkey donkeys 

monkey monkeys 

Plur. 

The donkeys bray. 

The monkeys obey. 



IV. y preceded by a yowel. 

Verbs ending in y preceded by a 
vowel form the singular by adding s ; 



thus, 



Plur. Sing. 

bray brays 

obey obeys 

Sing. 

The donkey brays. 

The monkey obeys. 



V. /changed to v. 

Some nouns ending in / or fe, 

change / to V for the plural ; thus, 
Sing. Plur. 

leaf leaves 

sheaf sheaves 

Plur. 
In spring the trees leaf, (or put 
forth leaves). 

The farmers sheaf their grain, (or 
bind it in sheaves, or bundles). 



V. /changed to v. 

Some verbs ending in / or fe 9 

change /to v for the singular ; thus, 
" Plur. Sing. 

leaf leaves 

sheaf sheaves 

Sing. 
In spring the tree leaves, (or puts 
forth the leaf). 

The farmer sheaves his grain, (or 
binds it in sheaf, or bundle). 



204 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



VI. Irregular. 

A few nouns, have irregular 
nuraber-forras ; thus, 

Sing. Plur. 

tooth teeth 

child children 

Plur. 
The teeth are sound. 
The children have measles. 



VI. Irregular. 

A few verbs have irregular 
number-forms ; thus, 

Plur. Sing. 

are is 

have has 

Sing. 
The tooth is sound. 
The child has measles. 



VII. Same ill sing, and plur. VII Same in sing, and plur. 



A few nouns are the same in singu- 
lar and plural ; thus, 

Sing. Plur. 

sheep sheep 

shad shad 

Plur. 

These sheep hurt themselves. 

These shad cost five dollars. 



A few verbs are (sometimes) the 
same in singular and plural ; thus, 
Sing. Plur. 

hurt hurt 

cost cost 

Sing. 
This sheep hurt itself. 
This shad cost fifty cents. * 



* The author recommends that the class be not required to make a formal 
recitation upon this lesson. But if the teacher thinks best to have it com- 
mitted to memory, the following questions will be found useful. They cover 
about two days' additional work. 



t Questions for Recitation. 

Singular and Plural. 

1. Give rule for plural nouns in s ; give an example. 

2. Give corresponding rule for verbs ; give an example. 

3. Give rule for plural nouns in es ; give example. 

4. Give corresponding rule for verbs ; give example . 

5. Give rule for nouns in y preceded by a consonant ; give example. 

6. Give corresponding rule for verbs ; give example. 

7. Give rule for nouns in y preceded by a vowel ; give example. 

8. Give corresponding rule for verbs ; give example. 

9. Give rule for nouns in / or fe ; give example. 

10. Give corresponding rule for verbs ; give example. 

11. Give rule for irregular nouns ; give example. 

12. Give corresponding rule for verbs ; give example. 

13. Give rule for nouns that are the same in singular and plural ; give 
example. 

14. Give corresponding rule for verbs ; give example. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 205 



LESSON XX. 
Review : Number. 
Written Exercise. 

1. Write five singular nouns ; five plural nouns. 

2. gy Words that mean but one thing are said to be of the 
singular number. 

3. jy Words that mean more titan one thing are said to be 
of the plural number. 

4 Wiite the plural of the following nouns : 

noun, pronoun, adverb, preposition, 

verb, adjective, conjunction, interjection. 

5. |y Most nouns form the plural by adding s to the sin- 
gular. 

6. Write the singular of the following nouns : 

swords, frogs, hands, bees, 

clocks, dolls, beads, hams. 

7. fly Some nouns form the plural by adding es to the sin- 
gular, making another syllable. 

8. Copy the following, and give the plurals according 
to the model in Lesson III : 

peach, church, fish, ostrich, 

ditch, fox, bush, coach. 

Oral Recitation. 

1. Give a singular noun ; make it plural. 

2. Give a plural noun ; make it singular. 

3. Give the general statement about the singular number. 

4. Give the general statement about the plural number. 

5. Give the rule for forming the plural of most nouns. 

6. Give examples of this rule. 

7. Give the rule for forming the plural of some other nouns. 

8. Give examples of this rule. 



206 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

LESSON XXL 

Review of Lesson IV. 

LESSON XXIL 
Review of Lesson V. 

LESSON XXIIL 
Review of Lesson VL 

LESSON XXIV. 
Review of Lesson VIL 

LESSON XXV. 
Review of Lesson VliL 

LESSON XXVL 
Review of Lesson TX. 

LESSON XXVII. 

Review : Number— Irregular Nouns, 

Written Exercise* 

1. Write five examples of nouns that are the same in 
singular and plural. 

2. jgp- A few nouns are the same in singular and plural. 

3. Write ten examples of nouns that have no singular. 

4. &§~ A few nouns are used in the plural only, 

5. Copy the examples of Lesson XI. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 207 

Oral Exercise. 
Model : 

1. Sheep. This noun is the same in singular and plural : thus we 
say, one s7ieep, two sheep. 

2. [Repeat the first rule of the lesson.] 

3. Oats. This noun is used in the plural only : thus we say, oats 
are food f or Jiorses. 

4. [Repeat the second rule of the lesson.] 

LESSON XXVIII. 
Review : Singular and Plural in Verbs. 
[To be read in class.] 

As nouns change their forms a little in passing from 
singular to plural, so do verbs also. Most nouns make 
their plural by adding s to the singular, while most verbs 
make their singular by adding s to the plural. Thus, 

The squirrel eat (s) nuts, (Sing.) 
The squirrel (s) eat nuts. (Plnr.) 

There is a kind of agreement between the noun and the 
verb — the noun using the extra s when it requires it to 
denote the plural, and giving it to the verb when it does 
not require it for itself; so one or the other — the noun or 
the verb— has the little floating letter all the time. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Copy the following, filling all blanks : 

Singular. Plural. 

1. The horse neigh (s). The horse (s) neigh. 



2. The lamb bleat (s). 

3. . The dog (s) howl. 

4. The puppy whine (s). 



5. The tiger spring (s). . 

6. Lion (s) roar. 

7. — — . The wind (s) blow. ' 

2. y^~ Most verbs form the singular by adding s to the plural. 



207 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Important Exception. 

When the pronoun J or you is Lite subject of a sentence, 
the verb behaves differently. Tims we say, 

/ eat. You eat, 

not 

/ eats. You eats. 

Oral Exercise* 
Model ; 

The horse neighs. The horses neigh. The verb " neigh " in 
the plural changes to " neighs " in the singular, while the noun 
" horse " in the singular changes to " horses " in the plural. 

Repeat the rule of the lesson. 



LESSON XXIX. 

Review : Singular and Plural in Verbs. 

[To be read in class.] 

While most verbs make their singular by adding s to 
the plural, there are a few important ones that act very 
differently ; as, 

Sing. Plur. 

is are 

was were 

has hare 

Written Exercise. 

1 . &^~ Is, was, and has are singular ; are, ivere, and have 
are plural. 

2. Copy the following, filling all blanks : 

Singular. Plnr&l. 

1. The fox is sly. Foxes are sly. 

2. . Hares are swift. 

3, The lion was brave. . 

4. . The elephants were excited. 

5. The whale was captured. 



6, . The dogs were faithful. 



8. The snake has fangs. 

9. The fish has fins. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 209 

t Babies have teeth. 



10. . Buffaloes have horns. 

11. The hog is grunting. 



12. . Horses are intelligent. 

13. The pupil teas sick. 



14. . The teachers were away. 

15. The ship has a keel.^ 



16. . Potatoes have eyes. 

Oral Eacercise* 

Questions for Becitation. 

1. " Is " changes to what in the plural ? 

2. Give an example. 

3. " Was " changes to what in the plural ? 

4. Give an example. 

5. "Has " changes to what in the plural ? 

6. Give an example. 

7. " Are " changes to what in the singular ? 

8. Give example. 

9. " Were " changes to what in the singular ? 

10. Give example. 

11. " Have " changes to what in the singular ? 

12. Give example. 

Repeat the rule of the lesson. 



LESSON XXX. 
Review of Lesson XIX. 

LESSON XXXI. 

Summary of Rules, Definitions, and Principles. 

1. Words that mean but one thing are said to be of the 
singular number. 

What does " singular number " mean ? 



210 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

2. Words that mean more than one thing are said to be 
of the plural number. 

What does " plural number " mean ? 

3. Most nouns form the plural by adding s to the 
singular. 

Most nouns form the plural how ? Give example. 

4. Some nouns form the plural by adding es to the 
singular, making another syllable. 

Give the rule for plural nouns in es ; give example. 

5. Nouns ending in ey form the plural by adding & 
Give the rule for nouns in ey ; give example. 

6. Some nouns ending in/ or fe change/ to v for the 
plural. 

Give a rule for nouns inforfe ; give example. 

7. Some nouns in/or/e retain the/in the plural. 
Give another rule for nouns inforfe ; give example. 

8. A few nouns form the plural irregularly, 
Give the rule for irregular plural nouns ,■ give example. 

9. A few nouns are the same in singular and plural. 
Give the rule for nouns like " sheep," " deer," &c. 

10. A few nouns are used in the plural only. 
Give the rule tor nouns like " scissors," " oats," &c. 

11. Most verbs form the singular by adding s to the 
plural. 

Most verbs form the singular how ? 

12. Is, was, and has can only be used when the state- 
ment is about one person, place, or tiling. 

When can "is," " was,'' and " has " be used ? Give example of 
each. 

13. Are, were, and have can only be used when the state- 
ment is about more than one person, place, or thing. 

When can '■ are," " were," and " have " be used ? Give examples 
of each. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



211 



LESSON XXXII. 
Written Examination. 

1. When is a word in the singular number ? 
Give an example. 

2. When is a word in the plural number ? 
Give an example. 

3. Most nouns form the plural how ? 

4. Mention another somewhat similar way. Give 
an example. 

5. Spell the plural of baby, and give the rule. 
0. Spell the plural of key, and give the rule. 

7, 8 7 9, 10, 11. Give the plural of the following nouns : 

alley 

valley 

honey 

story 

fairy 

city 

chimney 
cherry 
kidney 
puppy 

12. Some nouns ending in /or fe form the plural how ? 
Give an example. 

13. Some nouns ending in / or fe form the plural in 
what other wny ? Give nu example. 

14. 15, 16. Give the plural of the following nouns : 
calf safe half knife wife roof 
hoof proof leaf sheaf beef kerchief, 
chief grief thief elf self shelf 
oaf loaf life strife fife wolf 
gulf wharf dwarf scarf clef reef 



key 


posy 


fly 


bunny 


tabby 


dolly 


turkey 


turnkey 


cry 


lackey 


monkey 


whiskey 


donkey 


dandy 


dummy 


pulley 


body 


candy 


dickey 


money 



lady 


covey 


abbey 


bey 


cooky 


dey 


kersey 


pony 


lily 


army 


daisy 


beauty 


berry 


grey 


journey 


pantry 


tourney 


jockey 


attorney 


polly 



212 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

LESSON XXXIII. 
Writen, Examination Completed. 

1. The plural of nearly all nouns ends in what letter? 

2. What is meant by irregular plurals ? 

3. Give five examples of irregular plurals. 

4. Give live examples of nouns that have the same form 
in singular and plural. 

5. Give five examples of nouns that have no singular. 

6. 7, 8. Give the singular of the following nouns if they 
have any : 

1. men 7. salmon 13. victuals 19. thanks 25. trout 

2. oats 8. teeth 14. doormen 20. lice 26. measles 

3. children 9. women 15. feet 21. geese 27. oven 

4. sheep 10. clothes 16. mice 22. scissors 28. doormice 

5. ashes 11. mackerel 17. pincers 23. mumps 29. footmen 

6. deer 12. trousers 18. shad 24. tongs 30. fireworks 

9. What curious change of form do verbs have? Give 
an example. 

10. What does this change of form show ? 

11. Give an example of a noun and its verb changing 
from singular to plural. 

12. Complete the following : 

Sing. Plur. 
1. The tree grows. The trees . 



2 The monkey climbs. The monkeys 

3. The horse . The horses neigh. 

4. The wolf . The wolves howl. 

5. The donkey brays. The 



6. The . The mice gnaw. 

13. How do most verbs change their forms to express 
singular and plural ? 

14. Correct the errors in the following sentences, and 
apply the proper rule : 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 213 

1. Jobu and James is good boys. 

2. They has kind parents. 

3. We was at school to-day. 

15. Correct the errors in the following sentences, and 
apply the proper rule: 

1. John are a good boy, 

2. William have fed the pigs. 

3. Charles were sick yesterday. 

[Additional questions for classes that made a study and recitation of 

Lesson XIX.] 

16 to 22. State the rule that applies to each of the fol- 
lowing" verbs : 

1 eat, eats 5. leaf, leaves 

2. wash, washes 6. is, are 

3. apply, applies 7. hurt, hurt 

4. obey, obeys 



CHAPTER X. 

LETTER-WRITIXG. 



LESSON I. 

The Parts of a Letter. 

[To be read in class.'] 

Examine carefully tlie following models of letters, which 
a pupil might write to a teacher : 

Model No 1. : 

Xew Orleans, La.,* Mar. 1, 1890. 
My dear Teacher, 

The orange-trees are in bloom now, and their perfume fills the 
air. I am going to send you some blossoms, though I am afraid they 



* See Appendix, Section I. 



214 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

will wither, and their beauty and sweetness be gone before they reach 
you ; nevertheless they will bear my love to you just the same. 

The weather here is delightfully warm, compared with your snowy and 
icy season. Don't you wish you were here ? I do, for I long to see you. 
Adieu. 

Your faithful pupil, 

Maby Cabot Lbvtng. 
Miss Josephine Thompson, 
Springfield, Mass. 

Model No. 2. : 

Silver Spring, Dutchess Co. , * N. Y. , 
Oct, 1, 1890. 
Dear Miss Gourley, 

I wish you could have been with us yesterday. We got up a party 
of boys and girls, and went off into the woods for a pic-nic. We staid 
all day, and had a splendid time. 

We saw a ball-frog catch a grandfather-long-legs, and it was the 
funniest sight you could imagine. When Mr. Frog got Mr. Long-legs in 
his month, he did not seem to know what to do next, for the legs stuck 
out on 1 oth sides, and he couldn't seem to get them in. We laughed, 
and wondered how he would manage it, when he very deliberately put- 
up one of his fore-feet and pushed the legs in on that side, and then he 
put up the other fore-foot and pushed the legs in on the other side, and 
then poor Long-legs was gone ! Dont you tlrnk that was very funny ? 

I wish you would write to me very soon. It is so nice to get letters 
from friends when you are away in the country. Good bye. 

Your loving pupil, 
Gracie. • 

1. The first part in the above models, written in the 
upper right-hand corner, is called the heading. This tells 
where and when the letter was written. The line that 
tells when the letter was written, is called the date. a The 
heading" of Model No. 2, is as follows : 

' ' Silver Spring, Dutchess Co. , N. Y. , 
Oct. 1, 1890." 

2. The second part is called the salutation* It is a 
formal t phrase of politeness which you be&in with. It 



* The county is given because Silver Spring is not a well-known place. 
j* " Formal " means regular , fixed hy custom. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 215 

corresponds to the bow of respect when one meets an 
acquaintance, or the friendly shaking of hands. "The 
salutation " of Model No. 1, is 

' ' My dear Teacher. " 

3. Then follows what is called the body of the letter, 
which is closed by 

4. The subscription.* This last includes 
First, a formal phrase of respect, or regard, and 
Secondly, the writer's signature.! 

The subscription of Model No 1, is 

' ' Your faithful scholar, 
Maby Cabot Ibitng." 

5. The words, 

' ' Miss Josephine Thompson, 
Springfield, Mass. 

in Model No. 1, are called the address. 

G3F" " The heading " tells where and when the letter was 
written. 



LESSON II. 

A Letter. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Write a letter to your teacher after Model No. 1 of 
the preceding lesson, telling her about a runaway horse. 
Observe carefully in what part of the line you should begin 
each of the following : 

1. The heading 3. The body of the letter 

2. The salutation 4. The subscription 

5. The address 

Write, spell, and punctuate carefully. 

2. jgg- << The salutation " is a formal phrase of politeness at the 
beginning of a letter. 

* " Subscription M means written under, 

■\ " Signature " means a person s name written by himself \ 



216 A PRIMEK OF LANGUAGE. 



LESSON III. 

A Letter. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Write a letter to your teacher after Model 1S0. 2 of 
Lesson L, telling a story about the habits of some animal, 
of which you may have read or heard. Observe carefully 
in what part of the line you should begin each of the fol- 
lowing : 

1 . The heading 3. The body of the letter 

2. The salutation 4. The subscription 

Write, spell, and punctuate carefully. 

2. 8^" " The subscription" consists of 

1. A formal phrase of respect, or regard, and 

2. The writer's signature. 

LESSON IV. 
Titles, &c. 
A word of respect attached to a person's name is called 
a title. It is usually abbreviated, and must always begin 
with a capital ; as, 
Mr. Mrs. Hon. Sen. Col. Dr. 

Esq. Miss. Rev. Gov, Maj. M.D. 

Messrs. Prof. Gent. Gen. Cap. LL.D. 

For others, see appendix, section 1. 
CAUTION. — Do not use Esq. along with Mr., Prof., Gen., 
Dr., &fc. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Copy the following, correcting the errors : 

1. Mr. John J. Smith, Esq. 

2. Dr. Thos. T. Jones, M.D.* 



* " Dr. " and " M.D, " mean about the same thing; therefore strike out 
one or the other. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 217 

3. Prof. F. W. Small, Esq. 

4. Rev. A. B. Collins, Esq.* 

Observe, that but one period is used at the close of each 
of the above examples, that one marking both the close 
and the abbreviation. 

2. Copy the following headings, being careful to put in 
every punctuation mark. Observe that the abbreviation 
mark (.) after Fla., Ave., and Penn. does not interfere with 
the comma that is required to separate each of these items 
of the heading from the next. 

1. Jacksonville, Fla., 

Jan. 23d, 1889. 

There are four items t in this heading, viz. : 

1. city. 2. state. 3 day of month. 4. year. 

Observe the comma after each item of the heading ex. 
cept the last. 

2. 126 Fifth Ave., 
Sep. 13, 1890. 

There are three items in this heading, viz, : 

1. street and number of residence. 2. day of month. 3. year. 

Observe the comma after each item of the heading ex- 
cept the last. 

3. New Orleans, La., 

Christmas, 1866. 

Observe that "New " belongs to " Orleans ; " they go 
together, and make but one item. 

3. (Of There must be a comma after every item of the heading 
except the last. 

* You might say Rev. Mr. Col/ins, if you did not know his christian name, 
or initials, but not " Rev. A, B. Collins, Esq " 
-j- The word " items " means separate particulars. 



218 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

LESSON V. 
A Practice-Lesson. 
Written Exercise. 

1. Copy the following* salutations carefully : 

My dear Father. Dear Sir. My dear Classmate. 

Dear Friend. Dear Teacher. Dear Madam. 

2. yip The salutation must begin with a capital.* 

3. fl£ir In a salutation, any word used as a title^ or part of a 
title, must begin with a capital; as, in the above examples, 
Father, Classmate, Teacher, Sir, Friend, Madam. 

4. yrf~ The word " dear," not being a title, nor part of a title* 
should not begin with a capital. 

5. &r The salutation should begin a little to the right of the 
margin. 

6. Copy the following addresses : 

1. Miss Martha Cumniings, 

Oswego, 

N,Y. (three items) 

2. Charles Pettit, Esq., 

Harrisburg, 

Perm. (three items) 

3. Hon. F. W. Eggleson, 

Washington, 

D.C. (three items) 

r * . ISBT There must be a comma after every item in the address 
except the last. 

8. Copy the following subscriptions : 

1. Your affectionate son, 2. Yours affectionately, 

James Pellew. Mary Erskine. 

3, Yours truly, 4. Yours sincerely, 

Jacob Marsh. Martha Washington. 

5. Yours respectfully, 6. Your friend, 
T. C. Jones. Mary. 



* Copy the rules of this lesson but once, unless the teacher directs otherwise, 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 219 

LESSON VI. 

A Test- Lesson. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Copy and punctuate the following headings : 
1. Albany NY 2. Boston Mass 

Sep 16 1889 May 3 1887 

3. Tallahassee Fla 3. St Louis Mo 

Feb 28 1892 Aug 31 1885 

2. Copy and punctuate the following addresses : 
1. Hon T M Macpherson 2. Mr H L Belle w 

Washington DC Topeka Kansas 

Sir Dear Sir 

3. J H Johnson Esq 4. Miss H C Johnson 
Charleston S C Cincinnati 

My dear Sir Dear Madam 

3. Copy and punctuate the following salutations : 
1. My dear Mother 2. My dear Brother 3. Dear Sir 

4. Dear Friend 5. Dear Chum 6. Gent. 

4. Copy and punctuate the following subscriptions ; 

1. Your affectionate son 2. Yours respectfully » 

John Thomas Bridges . 

3. Y r ours truly 4, Affectionately your sister 

Scott Jones Jennie 

5. Truly your friend 6. Yours sincerely 

A. B. Gal lock May 

7. Your faithful pupil 8. Very truly yours 

Charley Johnson Mary Thomson 

LESSON VII. 

Form of a Letter, 

Written Exercise. 

1. Copy the following blank form of a letter, and study 
the names of the parts : 



220 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



(2){- 



(3) J 



(4){- 



<«{ 



(5) 



ft 

o 

1 



(6) J 



stamp 



(1) Heading (2) Salutation (3) Body 

(4) Signature (5) Address (6) Superscription* 

The superscription should be full, and very plainly 
written, so that it can be easily read at the post-office. 

2. The following are common forms of superscription ; 
copy them carefully : 

1. Mrs. C. W. Smith, 2. Miss L. B. Balston, 

49 Newbury Place, Ottawa, 

Springfield, 111. 

Mass. 



* " Superscription M means on top oj\ 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 221 

3. D. H. Gimmel, M.D., 4. Pres. Edward H. Magill, 
Newark, Swartlimore College, 

N. J. S warthmore, 

P.O. Box 113. Pa. 

5. L. W. Knox, Esq., 6. Mr. John C. New, 

St. Louis, Buffalo, 

Mo. N.Y. 

3. BJp The superscription is the direction on the outside of the 
letter. 



LESSON VIII. 

Explanatory. 

[2 7 <? be read in class.] 

If you say, "May I go skating, Mother?" you use the 
word " Mother " as a title, and must begin it with a capi- 
tal, according to the rule. But if you say, "I am going- 
skating, for my mother said I might,* 1 you use the word 
" mother ,? as a word of general description, and must not 
begin it with a capital. If you are writing to your brother, 
you might salute him, 

My dear Brother : 
and you might subscribe yourself, 

Your affectionate brother, 
capitalizing "Brother" in the first case, but not in the 
second ; because, in the first case, you are addressing your 
brother and must call him by his title ; while in the second 
case, you are only referring to yourself. You see, a title 
carries along with it the idea of address. In speaking of 
your father, you would say 

My father is well, 
just as you would say, 

My friend is well. 
But in addressing him, you should say, 
Are you well, Father? 
In the first case the word "father" is a mere name and 
not a title ; while in the second, it is a title, also. 



222 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



LESSON IX. 
A Test-Lesson. 



Written 

Copy the following, corree 

1. knoxville tenn 

march, 16 1890 



3. New, Lebanon, O., 
May, 20, 1895. 

5. Col-TM Jackson Esq 
Fort, Hamilton 
Long Island 
7. my dear father. 
9. Dear Friend. 
11. Your friend, and schoolmate 

John Jones 
13. Your faithful scholar ; 
Mary 



Exercise. 
ting all errors : 

2. Hon Jas, S Macy. 
150 White, st., 
Brooklyn. 

N,Y. 
4. 151, Bedford, Ave, 
Christinas 1891. 
6. mrs, Mary Marks. 

niagara, falls. 

8. dear sir, 
10. Dear, playmate ! 
12. Yours truly. 

Tommy 
14. Your Affectionate Son 
Charles 



LESSON X. 

A Little Boy's Letter. 

Written Exercise. 

1. In the following letter, (written by a pupil eight 
years old), there are sixteen errors. There are errors in 
punctuation, in use of capitals, in spelling, and in the 
places of beginning certain lines. Rewrite the letter cor- 
rectly. 

Brooklyn X Y Jan. 10 1880 
My dear teacher, 
I was boarn in Brooklyn July 30th 1872. I now reside at 383 Franklin 
Ave I have no brothers but one sister. I am the ouldest 

Your faithful pupil, 
Edward S. Child. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 223 

"The body" of a letter is the message— the part in- 
cluded between the salutation and the subscription. It usually 
begins just below the end of the salutation. 



LESSON XL 

A Little Girl's Letter. 

Written Exercise, 

1. In the following" letter, (written by a pupil about ten 
years old), there are nine errors. Rewrite it correctly. 

Brooklyn Jan. 10 1891 
My dear teacher 

I was born at 24 Willow st. Brooklyn N.Y. 
in 1880. I now reside at 113 Elliott Place. I have no brothers or sisters. 

Yotir faithful scholar. 
Edith. 

2. igg- " The address " is the name of the person to whom the 
letter is written, including, usually, his place of residence. 

LESSON XII. 

A Little Boy's Letter. 

Written Exercise. 

1. In the following letter, (written by a pupil about ten 
years old), there are seven errors. He write it correctly. 

Brooklyn 
Jan 10th 1891. 
My dear teacher, 

I was born in Carlton Ave. Nov. 20th, 1880. I now 
reside, at 15 So. Oxford st. I have one brother and one sister, 

Your faithful boy, 
James. 

2. yf 'The subscription" is the writer's signature, along 
with a formal phrase of respect or regard. 



224 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

LESSON XIII. 

Use of Figures. 
[To he read in class.] 

Do not use figures in such expressions as, 

I met three acquaintances. We have ten horses. 

Mr. Jones milks fifty cows. Josey has twelve toes. 

I ate two apples. I have one brother and five sisters, 

It is proper to use figures in mentioning 

1. Dates ; as, May 10, 1890. 

2. Sums of money; as, $10,000. 

3. One's honse-number ; as, 26 Fulton St. 

4. Page, volume, chapter, &c. ; as, p. 145, vol. 3, chapter F., &c. 

5. Large numbers ; as, 50,000 troops. 

6. Items of account ; as, please send me 4 doz. Copy Books. 

7. Tables of weights and measures, &c. ; as, 2 pts. make a qt 

Written Exercise* 

Copy the following correctly : 

1. 2 dogs were at play. 

2. I have 8 fingers and 2 thumbs. 

3. If I get 2 oranges, I will give you 1 of them. 

4. My gloves have, each, 4 buttons. 

5. 10 hours is a day's work. 

6. Children need 8 or 9 hours' sleep. 

7. June sixteenth, 1890. 

8. No. fifty-six Clinton st. 

9. Page twenty-five. ^ ^ 

10. Please send me : five lbs. beef to roast, three lbs. steak, two 
bunches celery. Z. 

11. Sixteen oz. make a pd. . 

(Jr 

LESSON XIV. 

A Model Letter. 
[To be read in class.] 

The address is sometimes written just before the saluta- 
tion, as in the following Model : 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 225 

Rifton House, 
Jacksonville, Fla., 
Jan. 16, 1892. 
Miss Maei Jones, 
Syracuse, N.Y. ; 
Dear Aunty ; 

We arrived here safely yesterday, after a tiresome journey 
of four days. We are all rested now and feel first-rate. The climate 
here is delightful, and the fruits delicious. I will try to bring you some 
oranges when we return, but I can not carry back in my trunk a speci- 
men of the beautiful weather we are hourly enjoying. 
Hoping you are all well, I remain 

Your affectionate nephew, 
Chaelie. 

Written Exercise, 

1. Write an original letter similar to the above model, 
but date it at Havana, Cuba. Tell a little about what 
grows there, which you can find out from your geography* 

2. jgp- " The date " is that part of the heading which states 
ivhen the tetter was written. 



LESSON XV. 

The Postscript. 
[To be read in class.] 

A writer, sometimes, after bringing a letter to a close 
and signing it, thinks of something else he wishes to say. 
This may be added in what is called a postscript * which is 
abbreviated into PS. 

Model : 

Steamer "Para," 
Amazon River, 

Dec. 20, 1892. 
My dear Papa and Mamma, 

This is the most wonderful river I ever saw. The captain says 
he will give us boys a little time, at the first landing, to go ashore and 

* " Postscript " means written after. 



226 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

see if we can catch some monkeys. I think it would be very funny to 
catch a monkey alive. I should like to have one to take home with me 
as a pet. Don't you think it would be nice ? 
My health continues excellent. With love to all, 

Your affectionate son, 
Cyrus. 

P.S. — Please write to me, care of Messrs. S. P. Hopkins & Co , Para, 
Brazil, S.A. 

Written Exercise. 

1, Write a letter similar to the above, (with postscript), 
dated at Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Speak of 
the kangaroos. 

2. HSF* A "postscript," (P.S.), is an addition made to a letter 
after it has been signed. 



LESSON XVI. 
How to Mail a Letter. 
[To be read in class.] 

After you have finished your letter, you must fold it, 
enclose it, (or, put it in an envelope), and direct it — (or, 
write on the envelope the name and residence of the per- 
son it is written to). This direction is called the superscrip- 
tion, as you have already learned. Then, if you wish to 
have it go through the post-office, you must put a postage- 
stamp on it — (this should be placed on the upper, right- 
hand corner), and drop it in a letter-box. In the post- 
office, all letters, papers, &c, thus left, are assorted accord- 
ing to the places they are to go to, stamped, and put into 
bags, and sent off by the quickest conveyance. This col- 
lection is called the mail ; the bags are called mail-bags, 
the persons that carry the mail are called mail- carriers. 
Dropping a letter in a letter-box is called mailing it. 

In preparing your letter for the envelope, make no more 
folds than are necessary. For an envelope of common 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



227 



size, a note sheet should be folded twice— once from the 
top and once from the bottom, as shown in the following 
diagram : 




If the envelope is a little too small to admit this form, 
then fold twice through the middle of the sheet — (or, a 
little out of the middle, if the envelope will allow it), once 
the long way of the paper, and once the short way ; thus, 



fold 






1— ' 



228 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

LESSON XVII. 
Review : The Parts of a Letter. 
[To be read in class,] 

The parts of a letter are as follows : 

1. The heading, 2. The salutation, 

3. The body, or message. 4. The subscription, 
5. The address. 6. The superscription. 

1. " The heading " is written in the upper right-hand 
corner. Lt consists of, first, the name and location of the 
place where the writer is, and, secondly, the date ; thus, 

Roslyn, Long Island, 
May 15, 1891. 

2. "The salutation " is written on the left-hand side of 
the page, on the next line below the date. It is a formal 
phrase of politeness which the writer begins with, corres- 
ponding to the bow of respect when one meets an acquaint- 
ance, or the friendly shaking of hands ; as, 

My dear Mother. 

3. " The bo^ly v of a letter is the message. It begins on 
the line next below the salutation, in or near the middle 
of the page. 

4. "The subscription v is written at the right-hand side 
of the page beginning on the line next below the end of 
the message. It must occupy two lines at least. It con- 
sists of two parts ; first, a formal phrase of respect, or re- 
gard ; and secondly, the writer's signature ; as, 

Yours respectfully, 
John Brown. 

5. "The address " is the name, and sometimes includes 
the residence also, of the person to whom the letter is 
written. In letters of friendship, it is usually placed at 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 229 

the lower left-hand corner of the page, beginning on the 
line next below the signature ; as, 

Mary J. Knowlton, 

Boston, Mass. 

G. " The superscription 7 ' is the direction on the outside 
of the letter. It consists of the name and post-office ad- 
dress of the person for whom the letter is intended. It 
should be written very distinctly. 

LESSON XVIII. 
Review of Lesson IV. 

LESSON XIX. 
Review of Lesson V. 

LESSON XX. 
Oral Review of Lesson VI. 

LESSON XXI. 
Review : Titles ; Figures. 
[To be read in class.] 

In addressing your father, mother, teacher, friend, &c, 
the word of address which you use is a title, and must al- 
ways begin with a capital : thus, 

Dear Father, Dear Mother. Dear Teacher. Dear Friend. 

But when you are not speaking to your father, mother, 
&c.j but only speaking of them, these names are not titles, 
and must not begin with capitals. Thus you say 

My pussy is offended, I am afraid. 
Are you offended, Pussy ? 

Keview Lesson XIII. 



230 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

LESSON XXII. 
Review : Postscript ; Mailing A Letter. 

A " postscript v is an after-thought — something added 
after the letter lias been brought to a close. 

Review Lesson XVI. 

LESSON XXIII. 
Summary of Definitions and Principles. 

1. The heading tells where and when the letter was 
written. 

2. The date is that part of the heading which states 
when the letter was written. 

3. There must be a comma after every item of the head- 
ing except the last. 

4. The salutation is a formal phrase of politeness with 
which you begin a letter. 

5. The salutation must begin with a capital. 

G. hi a salutation, every word used as a title, or part of 
a title, must begin with a capital. 

7. In a salutation, the word "dear/ 7 not being a title, 
nor part of a title, should not begin with a capital. 

8. The salutation should begin a, little to the right of the 
marginal line. 

9. The subscription is the writer's signature along with 
a formal phrase of respect or regard. 

10. The body of a letter is the message — the part in- 
cluded between the salutation and the subscription, it 
usually begins just below the end of the salutation. 

11. The address is the name of the person to whom the 
letter is written, including, usually, his place of residence. 

12. A postscript, (P,S.), is an after-thought — something 
added after the letter has been brought to a close. 

13. The superscription is the direction on the outside of 
the letter. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 231 

LESSON XXIV. 
Written Examination. 

1. Name the six parts of a letter. 

2. What is " the heading"? 

3. Where must it be placed ? 

4. What is " the salutation "? 

5. Where must it be placed ? 

6. What part of the salutation must receive a capital r 

7. What gestures of respect or regard correspond to the 
written salutation ? 

8. What does " formal " mean ? 

9. What is " the body » of a letter ? 

10. Where should it begin ? 

1 1. What is " the subscription ! " 

12. What does " subscription " mean ? 

13. Where must it be placed ? 

Li. What does "signature" mean ? 

15. What is <■ the address » ? 

16. Where must it be placed ? 

17. What is a " title" ? and how must it be written ? 

18. When are the words, "father," "mother,' 7 "friend," 
&c, titles? and when not? 

LESSON XXV. 
Written Examination Continued. 

1. Punctuate the following heading : 

Boston Mass 
Oct 15 1891 

2. How T many items are there in the above heading ? 

3. What does " item " mean ? 

4. What is the rule for punctuating the above heading ? 

5. Punctuate the following salutation : 



232 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

My dear Father 

6. Punctuate the following address : 

Mr Cornelius Ross 
Newark N J 

7. How many items are there in the above address ? 

8. Punctuate the following subscription : 

Affectionately your daughter 
Sarah 

9. How should a letter be folded ? 

10. What is " the superscription ,? ? 

11. What does " superscription " mean ? 

12. Correct the errors in the following: 

May tenth, 1890. I ate 3 peaches. 

13. Correct the errors in the following : 

Number Sixteen Bedford Aye. Charlie Smith has 2 

ponies. 

14. What is a " postscript" ? 

15. What does "postscript" mean ? 

16. What do you mean by "mailing" a letter ? 

17. How must a letter be folded for mailing ? 

18. What stamp is required ? 

19. Where should the stamp be placed ? 

20. 21, 22. What do the following terms mean ? 

mail; mail-bag; mail-carrier. 






A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



233 



CHAPTER XL 



HOW WORDS GROW OUT OF OTHER WORDS 
TIYES AND COMPOUND WORDS. 



DERIVA- 



LESSON I. 

Remarkable Growth of Words. 

Written Exercise. 

A single grain of corn, if planted in tiie ground, will 
produce hundreds of other grains of corn. It is some- 
what so with words. Copy the following : 



press er 
press es 
press ed 
press ing 
press ure 
press man 
corn press 
com press es 
com press ed 
com press ing 
com press ion 
ex press 
ex press ly 



Fifty-two Words that Grow out of press 

de press 
de press es 
de press ed 



ex press es 
ex press ed 
ex press ing 
ex press ive 
ex press ion 
ex press ible 
op press 
op press or 
op press es 
op press ed 
op press ing 
op press ive 
op press ion 



de press ing 
de press ion 
de press ive 
im press 
im press es 
im press ed 
im press ing 
im press ive 
im press ion 
im press ible 



re press 
re press or 
re press es 
re press ed 
re press ing 
re press ive 
re press ion 
sup press 
sup press es 
sup press ed 
sup press ing 
sup press ive 
sup press ion 



LESSON II. 
Primitives and Derivatives. 
[To be read in class.] 

The above fifty-two words are not all that grow out of 
the word press ; but the list is already quite long enough. 
There is a large number of words in our language, out of 



234 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



which many others grow in this way. Words that thus 
grow out of another word are said to be formed, or derived 
from it. The word "press" from which all the words of 
the above list are formed, or derived, is called a primi- 
tive ;* and the other words are called derivatives. The 
syllables that are added at the beginning and end have 
special t names too. Those at the beginning are called 
prefixes^ and those at the end are called suffixes.} 

Written Exercise. 
1. Make a table of" p L,e fi xes " illu l "suffixes" taken from 
the list of the preceding lesson. 
Model Blank : 



Prefixes. 



Suffixes. 



2. yp~ " A primitive" is a word that is not derived from an- 
other word in the language. 

3. J® 3 " u A derivative " is a word that is derived from some 
other word in the language. 



Model ; 



LESSON III. 
Making New Words 



Primitives. 


Prefixes. 


Suffixes. 


Derivatives. 


boy 




s 


boys 


friend 




iy 


friendly 


active 


in 




inactive 


rich 


en 




enrich 


respect 




fni 


respectful 


wise 


un 




unwise 



* From Latin primus, first — a root that gives us also primer, primary, etc. 

f " Special" means particular % 

% " Prefix" means placed before. " Suffix" means placed after. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 235 

Written Exercise. 

1. Unite each of the following primitives with its proper 
prefix or suffix, and thus form six derivatives. Arrange 
them neatly in a table like the above model. (Observe 
that the prefixes and suffixes given in this and following 
lessons are not arranged in proper order. Pick out the 
right one in every case, using each but once). 

Primitives. Prefixes. Suffixes. 

kind, sweet, un ly 

walk, polite, im ing 

honest, care, dis less 

2. j^~ A " prefix " is a letter or syllable joined to a word at its 
beginning', to form a new word. 

3. gy A " suffix " is a letter or syllable joined to a word at its 
end, to form a new word. 



LESSON IV. 
Making New Words. 
Written Exercise. 

1. Unite each of the following primitives with its proper 
prefix or suffix, and thus form ten derivatives. Arrange 
them neatly in a table as in the preceding lesson. 



Primitives. 


Prefixes. 


Suffixes. 


great, happy, 


un 


iy 


pure, press, 


com 


ness 


point, thicli, 


im 


ed 


cross, peace, 


a 


ful 


health, plain, 


ex 


y 



' A primitive is a word that is not derived from another 
word in the language. 

3. 2@p~ A derivative is a word that is derived from some other 
word in the language. 



236 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



LESSON V. 
Making New Words. 
Written Exercise. 

1. Unite each of the following- primitives with its proper 
prefix or suffix, and thus form ten derivatives. Arrange 
them neatly in a table as in the preceding lesson. 

Primitives. Prefixes. Suffixes. 

dress, dress, ad ant 

courage, mild, en ly 

assist, just, dis es 

capable, still, in less 

honor, fear, un ness 

2. |gp A prefix is a letter or syllable joined to a word at its be- 
ginning, to form a new word. 

3. WT A suffix is a letter or syUable joined to a word at its end, 
to form a new word. 



LESSON VI. 

Making New Words. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Unite each of the following primitives with its proper 
prefix or suffix, and thus form ten derivatives. Arrange 
them neatly in a table as in the preceding lesson. 



Primitives. Prefixes. 


Suffixes. 


obey, just, dis 


ic 


hero, paint, il 


ess 


legal, noun, im 


er 


mortal, art, pro 


ist 


lion, sane, in 


ice 


2. dt^f 3 A primitive is a word that is not derived ft 


•om another 


word in the language. 




3. dp A derivative is a word that is derived from 


some other 


word in the language. 





A PRIMER OP LANGUAGE. 



237 



4. $W A prefix is a letter or syllable joined to a word at its be- 
ginning, to form a new word. 

5. jy A suffix is a letter or syllable joined to a word at its end, 
to form a new word. 



LESSON VII. 
Final e. 



[To be read in class.] 
Model No. 1 : 



Model No. 2 



Prim Hive. 


Suf. 


Derivative. 


Primitive. 


Suf 


Derivative. 


create 


or 


creat or 


be 


ing 


be ing 


fade 


ing 


fad ing 


see 


ing 


see ing 


rouse 


er 


rous er 


agree 


able 


agree able 


behave 


ior 


behav ior 


decree 


ing 


decree ing 


active 


ity 


activ ity 


free 


ing 


free ing 



Observe, 1. That in the derivatives of the first of the 
above lists, the final e of the primitive is lost ; while in 
the derivatives of the second list, it is retained. 

Observe, 2. That the suffixes of both lists all begin with 
a vowel. 

Observe, 3, That in the first list, the final e of the primi- 
tive is silent* while in the second it is sounded. 

A large number of words behave like those in the first 
list, and so we get the following rule : 

When a word ending in a, silent e takes a suffix begin- 
ning with a vowel, the e is lost. 



Written Exercise* 

The above rule may be made a little shorter, thus: 

1. H^** Final e, when silent, is lost before a suffix beginning 
With a vowel. 



*A " silent " letter is one that is not sounded in the pronunciation of the 
word it belongs to. Thus, create ; when this word is pronounced, the last 
sound heard is that of"/, the final e not being sounded at all. 



238 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



2. Unite the following primitives and suffixes properly 
so as to form five derivatives, and arrange them neatly in 
a table like one of the above models : 

Primitives. Suffixes. 

imagine ing 

judge ation 

serve ary 

observe er 

examine ant 

LESSON VIII. 

Final e. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Unite the following primitives and suffixes properly, 
so as to form ten derivatives, and arrange them neatly in 
a table, as in the preceding lesson : 

Primitives. Suffixes. Primitives. Suffixes. 



operate 


ilj 


make 


est 


haste 


isli 


frame 


ure 


hope 


er 


noble 


ing 


please 


ive 


style 


ert 


injure 


or 


abuse 


y 



2. atir* Final e, when silent, is lost before a sullix beginning 
with a vowel. 



LESSON IX. 

Final e. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Unite the following primitives and suffixes properly, 
so as to form ten derivatives, and arrange them neatly in 
a table, as in the preceding lesson ; 

Primitives. Suffixes. Prim It ires. Suffixes. 

rose ice noise er 

virtue en grape ous 






A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



239 



pure 


lor 


move 


y 


haste 


ifj 


save 


ery 


whistle 


able 


serve 


«y 



Final e 9 when silent, is lost before a suffix beginning 
with a vowel. 



LESSON X. 
Final y : Flow a Rule Is Made. 
[To be read in class.] 
Model No. 1 : 



Primitives. 


Suffixes. 


Derivatives. 


try 


ed 


tri ed 


cry 


er 


cri er 


deny 


al 


deni al 


city 


es 


citi es 


beauty 


ful 


beauti ful 



Observe in all the above five derivatives, the final y of 
the primitive changes to i. A good many other words end- 
ing in y behave in the same way ; and so, looking only at 
words like these, we might make the following rule : Final 
y changes to i before a suffix. But we find other words 
that behave differently. Thus, 



Model No. 2 : 






Primitives. 


Suffixes. 


Derivatives. 


gay 


ety 


gay ety 


boy 


ish 


boy ish 


play 


er 


play er 


joy 


ous 


joy ous 


delay 


1 ed 


delay ed 



240 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



Here the final y of the primitive remains unchanged in the 
derivative. Comparing the primitives of the first list with 
those in the second list, we observe that in the former the 
final y follows* a consonant, while in the latter it follows a 
vowel. As there are a good many words that behave like 
those in the second list, we shall have to change the rule 
to this : Final y, when it follows a consonant, changes to i 
before a suffix. 

But now let us look at still another list. * 
Model No. 8 : 



Primitives. 


Suffixes. 


Derivatives. 


cry 


ing 


cry ing 


deny 


ing 


deny ing 


baby 


ish 


baby ish 


worry 


ing- 


worry ing 


reply 


ing 


reply ing 



Here the final y of the primitive remains unchanged in the 
derivative as in the second list, though it folloivs a conson- 
ant, as in the first list. But observe that in the third list, 
all the suffixes begin with i, while in the first list they all 
begin with some other letter. Putting all these facts (and 
a few others) together, we at length get this rule : 

1. I®" Final y 9 when it follows a consonant, generally* 
changes to i before all suffixes except ing. 



LESSON XL 
Final ij. 
Written Exercise. 
1. Unite the following primitives and suffixes properly 



* Final y, following a consonant, sometimes changes to t before a suffix j 

thus, with ous, beauty, beauteous; duty, duteous; pity, piteous; 
bounty, bounteous. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



24 i 



together, so as to fonii ten derivatives, and arrange them 
neatly as before : 



Hmitives. 


Suffixes. 


Primitives. 


Suffixes. 


try 


ful 


purify 


ness 


shy 


able 


dry 


cation 


pity 


Ij 


charity 


er 


pretty 


es 


mercy 


ed 


duty 


al 


tidy 


fully 



A a^" Final y, following a consonant, generally changes to i 
before all suffixes except ing. 

LESSON XII. 

Final y. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Unite the following primitives and suffixes properly 
together, so as to form ten derivatives, and arrange them 
neatly as before : 

Primitives. Suffixes. Primitives. Suffixes. 

busy cation fry al 

apply ness beauty est 

cry able deny ful 

jolly ed lazy er 

ugly es rely ly 

2. jggf Final y, following a consonant, generally changes to i 
before all suffixes except ing. 



LESSON XIII. 
Final Letter Doubled. 



[To be read in class.] 
Model : 



- Primitives. 


Suffixes. 


Derivatives. 


fret 


ing 


fret (t) ing 


spin 


er 


spin (n) er 


wit 


J 


wit (t) y 


hot 


est 


hot (t) est 


red 


ish 


red (d) ish 



242 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

Examining the above list we find that, 

1. The, primitives are all monosyllables. 

2. They all ei\Ci in a consonant. 

3. This consonant follows one vowel. 

4. The suffiK begins with a vowel. 

Whenever we can say these four things of any word, 
(and we can say them of a good many), we find that in 
the derivative thus formed, the final tetter of the 'primitive is 
doubled. 

Written Exercise. 

Putting this statement as briefly as we can in the form 
of a rule, we say, 

1. %W Monosyllables, that end in a consonant following one 
vowel, double this consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel. 

2. Unite the following primitives and suffixes properly 
together to form derivatives and arrange them neatly in a 
table like the above model : 

Primitives. Suffixes* 

fop est 

wed er 

rob ish 

rap ing 

thin ed 



LESSON XIV. 

FrNAL Letter Doubled. 

Written Exercise. 

Unite the following primitives and suffixes properly to- 
gether to form derivatives, and arrange them neatly in a 
table as in the preceding lesson : 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



243 



Primitives. 


Suffixes. 


Primitives. 


Suffixes. 


Primitives. 


Suffixes. 


step 


j 


thin 


er 


stir 


isli 


star 


er 


pop 


ed 


sup 


ings 


M 


mg 


sin 


y 


Scot 


est 


mad 


ed 


trim 


est 


stop 


er 



LESSON XV. 

Final Letter Doubled. 



[To be read in class.] 
Model : 



Primitives. 


Suffixes. 


Derivatives. 


submit ' 
expel ' 
begin ' 
forbid ' 
occur ' 


ing 
ed 
er 
en 
ence , 


submit (t) ing 
expel (1) ed 
begin (n) er 
forbid (d) en 
occur (r) ence 



Examining the above list we find that, 

1. The primitives are all accented * on the last syllable. 

2. They all end in a consonant. 

3. This consonant follows one vowel. 

4. The snftix begins with a vowel. 

Observe that the last three points are exactly like what 
we found in Lesson XI.I1. Whenever we can say these 
four things of any word, (and we can say them of a good 
many), we find that in the derivative thus formed, just as 
in the case of monosyllables, the final letter of the primitive 
is doubled. 



Written Exercise. 
Putting the above long statement as briefly as we can 
in the form of a rule, we say. 



* An " accent " (') is a mark to show that the syllable must be spoken more 
strongly than the others. 



244 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



1- $3T Words that have an accent on the last syllable, and that 
end in a consonant following one rowel, double this consonant be- 
fore a suffix beginning with a vowel. 

2. Unite the following' primitives and suffixes properly 
together to form derivatives, and arrange them neatly in 
a table like the above model : 



Primitives. 

forget ' 
compel 7 
control / 
permit ' 
admit ' 



Suffixes. 

eel 
ance 

est 
er 



LESSON XVI. 

-Final Letter Doubled. 

Written Exercise. 

As the last two rules are alike except that one refers to 
monosyllables, and the other to any ivord accented on the last 
syllable, we may unite them thus : 

1 . B2P Monosyllables and all words accented on the last s yllable, 
if they end in a consonant following 1 one vowel, double this conso- 
nant before a snffix beginning* with a vowel. 

2. Unite the following primitives and suffixes properly 
together to form derivatives, and arrange them neatly in 
a table as in the preceding lesson : 



rimitives. 


Suffixes. 


Primitives. 


Suffixes. 


hat 


in% 


big 


ed 


occur 7 


ish 


fun 


est 


Pig 


ence 


forgot' 


ion 


omit' 


y 


rebel' 


ance 


prefer' 


er 


rid 


en 



A 1'KIMEK OF LANGUAGE. 245 



LESSON XVII. 

Final Letter Doubled. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Unite the following primitives and suffixes properly 
together to form derivatives, and arrange them neatly in 
a table as in the preceding lesson : 



Primitives. 


Suffixes. 


Primitives. 


Suffixes. 


propyl ' 


ee 


fat 


ish 


refer ' 


auce 


omit ' 


er 


hog 


ed 


flat 


iu S 


mud 


est 


admit ' 


ier 


commit ' 


5 


fur 


en 



2, &j?r Monosyllables and all words accented on the last syllable, 
if they end in a consonant following one rowel, double this conso- 
nant before a suffix beginning" with a vowel. 



LESSON XVIII. 

A Hard Lesson 
Written Exercise. 

The following list contains six primitives to which the 
last rule applies : pick them out, and make six derivatives 
by uniting with them suitable suffixes. Do not repeat the 
suffixes if you can help it. Arrange them neatly in a table 
as before : 

sun respect chat fop bait repeat 

omit begin notice occur work admire 



LESSON XIX. 

Light on a Dark Subject. 
[To be read in class.] 

You were perhaps puzzled to pick out the right words 
in the last lesson : perhaps you guessed at it, which is a 



246 A PKIMEli OF LANGUAGE. 

bad way. A better way is this. Remember that the rule 
applies only to words that have all these three qualifica- 
tions,* viz. : 

1. The word must either be a monosyllable, or else it 
must be accented on the last syllable. 

2. Its last letter must be a consonant. 

3. This consonant must follow one (and only one) vowel. 

Now let us take up the words of the list in order, and see 
which of them have all these three qualifications. 

1. Sllll* Itjs a monosyllable, and so has the first quali- 
fication. Its last letter is a consonant, and so it has the 
second qualification. This consonant follows one (and only 
one) vowel, and so it has the third qualification. Now 7 can 
you think of a derivative formed from " sun " ? Perhaps 
you think of sunshine, Sunday, sunstroke, sunshade, sunfish, 
sunburn; but in all these cases the added word begins 
with a consonant, and the rule requires that the suffix 
must begin with a vowel. Besides, these six words sun- 
shine, &c, are what are called compound words, which I 
will take up presently, and do not belong to the class we 
are discussing now. Another derivative is sunless. Will 
that do ? No, because the suffix less begins with a conso- 
nant, Try suns. Will that do ? No, for the same reason 
— the suffix s is a consonant. Try s%mny. That will do, 
for the suffix y is a vowel. So we find at last that the rule 
applies to sun, and when we add the suffix y to form a deri- 
vative, we must double the final n, thus 

sun (ll) J. 

2. Baiti This is a monosyllable, and so has the first 
qualification. Its last letter is a consonant, and so it has 
the second qualification. But this consonant follows two 

* ** Qualifications " means, qualities or conditions of fitness. To be " qualified *' 
is to be Jit. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 247 

vowels instead of one, as the rule requires. The rule, 
therefore, does not apply to this word. 

3. Notice. This is not a monosyllable, nor is it accented 
on the last syllable, but on the first. Therefore, the rule 
does not apply to it. 

4. Respect. This is not a monosyllable, but it is accen- 
ted on the last syllable, and so it has the first qualification. 
Its last letter is a consonant, and so it has the second quali- 
fication. But this consonant follows another consonant in- 
stead of a vowel. Therefore the rule does not apply to 
this word. 

5. Repeat. This word also is accented on the last syl- 
lable, and so has the first qualification. Its last letter is a 
consonant, and so it has the second qualification. But this 
consonant follows two vowels, instead of only one. The 
rule, therefore, does not apply to this word. 

ti. Occur. Examining this word in the same way we 
find that it has all the qualifications. Now what deriva- 
tives can you think of that are formed from it? Occurs, 
occurred, occurring, occurrence. The first, occurs, will not do, 
for the suffix s is a consonant. Either of the others will 
do, for the suffixes ed, ing, and ence all begin with a vowel. 
Let us take the last. In forming the derivative, we must 
double the final r of the primitive, and thus we get 

occur (r) euce. 

Now go through all the words of the list orally, 



LESSON XX. 

A Test-Lesson. 

Written Exercise, 

The following list contains six primitives to which the 
last rule applies : pick them out, and make six derivatives 



248 



A PKIMEK OF LANGUAGE. 



by uniting with them suitabl ^suffixes. Do not repeat the 
suffixes it yon can help it. Arrange them neatly in a table 
as before. 

gallop permit appear assist fat fun 

admit hop admire sleep ice expel 



LESSON XXL 

Miscellaneous Examples. 

Written Exercise* 

Form as many derivatives as you can from each of the 
following primitives : 

move hand sleep cool tell love 

friend obey cry feel take like 

Carefully apply the foregoing rules for spelling. 

Model : 

more 

rnov ed mov er mov ables 

mov ing mov able move ment 

mov es mov ably re move 

re mov ed re mov es re mov er 

re mov ing im mov able im mov ably 



LESSON XXIL 
Compound Words. 

You have seen in the preceding lessons of I his chapter 
how words grow out of other words by means of prefixes 
and suffixes. There is another important way of making 
new words, viz.. by simply uniting one whole word to an- 
other, or uniting several whole words together; as, milk- 
man, grandmother, son-in-law. 

Written Exercise. 
1. Copy the following words in two columns : 






A PKIMEK OF LANGUAGE. 249 

catfish school-boy 

steamboat warm-hearted 

headache father-in-law 

gentlemen grass-plot 

sunlight snow-drift 



In the first set of the above examples, the parts are 
united together closely ; in the second set, the parts are 
united together by the hyphen, as this mark, (-), is called. 
All words of this kind, whether united together closely 
like catfish, or by the hyphen like school-boy, are called 
compound* words. 

2. flgp" A " compound " word is one formed by putting to- 
gether two or more words. 

3. Write twelve compound words — six of them closely 
united, and six of them united by the hyphen. f Observe 
that each part must be a whole word* 



LESSON XXIII. 

Compound Words. 

In writing compound words you will often bepuzzled to 
know whether to use the hyphen or not. There is no 
strict rule about it, but the following remark will aid you. 
All compound words have the hyphen when they are first 
brought into use, but generally drop it when they come to be 
much used. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Make six compound words by suitably uniting the 
words of the following list. The first part of every com- 



* " Compound " means put together. 

-j- Look for them in your Reader, Speller, or some other book, if you cannot 
think of any. 



250 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

pound will be found in the first column ; the last part will 
be found in the second column. Three should have the 
hyphen, and three should not. 

brake cart 

red burnt 

sun man 

moon hot 

work light 

hand % men 

2. $g- ill compound words have the hyphen at first, but gen- 
erally drop it when they come to be much used. 

3. Make six compound words by suitably uniting the 
words of the following list. The first part of every com- 
pound will be found in the first column ; the last part will 
be found in the second column. Three should have the 
hyphen, and three should not. 

sun bird 

watch road 

humming man 

court machine 

rail shine 

sewing house 

4. flup A " compound" word is one formed by putting to- 
gether two or more words. 



LESSON XXIV, 

Compound Words 

Written Exercise. 
1. Make ten compound words by suitably uniting the 
words of the following list, The first part of every com- 
pound will be found in the first and third columns; the 
last part will be found in the second and fourth columns. 
Five should have the hyphen, and five should not. 



A PRIMEK OF LANGUAGE. 251 



butter 


in 


sea 


pile 


school 


shore 


fish 


fly 


wood 


water 


rocking 


house 


black 


pole 


rain 


case 


book 


chair 


with 


board 



2. $W All compound words have the hyphen at first, but gen- 
erally drop it when they come to be much used. 

3. J^" A " compound" word is one formed by putting to- 
gether two or more words. 

LESSON XXV. 

Compound Words. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Make ten compound words by suitably uniting the 
words of the following list. The first part of every com- 
pound will be found in the first and third columns ; the 
hist part will be found in the second and fourth columns. 
Five should have the hyphen, and five should not. 



battle 


well 


fare 


headed 


fish 


legged 


two 


hawk 


watch 


day 


birth 


out 


with 


axe 


bed 


sty 


pig 


clothes 


bald 


maker 



2. J®" A (t compound" word is one formed by putting to- 
gether two or more words. 

3. ZW AH compound words have the hyphen at first, but gen- 
erally drop it when they come to be much used. 

LESSON XXVI. 

Compound Words. 

Written Exercise. 

Copy and carefully observe the following list of com- 
pound words. Observe that in some, the parts are closely 



252 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



united, as rainbow \ while ii 
by a hyphen, as raiil-TVater, 
you have already learned, w 
in pairs— first, the two of No 
the two of No. 3, rind so on. 

1 rainbow 1 rain-water 

2 footstep 2 foot-ball 

3 footman 3 foot-print 

4 grindstone 4 tomb -stone 

5 steamboat 5 steam -whistle 



i others, the parts tire united 
Try to u iid erst and , from what 
hy this is so. Copy the words 
. 1, thru the two of No. % then 



tinsmith. 



6 tin-foil 



7 handkerchief 7 hand-cart 

8 doorway 8 door-keeper 

9 fireman 9 fire-engine 
10 foreman 10 fore-arm 

21 blind-man's-buff 

22 cat-o'-nine-tails 



11 blacksmith 

12 bookcase 

13 bookstore 

14 headache 

15 chairman 

16 churchyard 

17 whitewash 

18 daylight 

19 mankind 

20 watermelon 



11 black-snake 

12 book-mark 

13 book-shelf 

14 head-stone 

15 chair-factory 

16 church-steeple 

17 white-lead 

18 day-dream 

19 man-eater 

20 water-lily 



23 hop-o'-my-thumb 

24 Fourth-of-July 



LESSON XXVII. 

A Test-Lesson : Oral. 

Study the list given in the preceding lesson, and be able 
to tell by thinking of the reason rather than by memory, 
which one of each pair of words requires the hyphen, and 
which does not. 



LESSON XXVIII. 

Review : Primitives and Derivatives, Prefixes and 
Suffixes. 
[To be studied.] 

From the word press more than fifty other words are 
formed, or derived, ns press ure^ press ing, im press, ex press, 
&c. These are culled derivatives* and press is called a 
primitive. The syllables ure and ing, joined at the end, 
are called suffixes, (placed after) ; and the syllables im and 
«z, joined at the beginning, are called prefixes, (placed 
before). 



A PKIMEK OF LANGUAGE. 



253 



Written Exercise. 

1. Make a new wonl from eacli of the following, using 
as many different prefixes and suffixes as you can, and 
arrange the whole neatly in a table like the model : 

press kind book desire 

trade busy hard honest 

polite tie pure happy 

war love honor deprive 
Model : 

Making New Words. 



Primitives. 


Prefixes. 


Suffixes. 


Derivatives. 


deprive 




ation 


deprivation 


war 


Ull 


like 


unwarlike 


love 




iy 


lovely 


honor 


dis 


able 


dishonorable 



2. &T A " primitive " is a word that is not derived from an- 
other word in the language. 

3. ft^F 3 A " derivative " is a word that is derived from some 
other word in the language. 



LESSON XXIX. 

Review : Making New Words. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Unite each of the following primitives with its proper 

prefix or suffix, and thus form twelve derivatives : Arrange 

them neatly in a table. 



Prim 


lives. 


Prefixes. 


Suffixes. 


kiud 


sweet 


un 


iy 


walk 


polite 


ini 


ing 


honest 


care 


dis 


less 


great 


thaiik 


a 


ness 


cross 


plain 


ex 


fnl 


health 


press 


corn 


y 



254 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

2. yg~ A " prefix" is a letter or syllable joined to a word at 
its beginning', to form a new word. 

3. (jgf~ A " suffix " is a letter or syllable joined to a word at its 
end, to form a new word. 



LESSON XXX. 
Review of Lesson VL 

LESSON XXXL 
Review of Lessons VIII. and IX. 

LESSON XXXIL 
Review of Lessons XI. and XII. 

LESSON XXXIII. 
Review of Lesson XIV. 

LESSON XXXIV. 
Review of Lesson XVII. 

LESSON XXXV. 
Review of Lesson XIX 

LESSON XXXVI. 
Review of Lesson XX. 



A l'RIMER OF LANGUAGE. 255 

LESSON XXXVII. 

Review : Compound Words. 

[To be studied.] 

1. A compound word is one formed by putting together 
two or more words. When it is a word in common and 
frequent use, the parts are written closely together, as 
watchman; when it is not in very common use, the parts 
are united by the hyphen, as side-saddle. 

2. Review Lesson XXV . 

LESSON XXXVIII. 
Review of Lesson XXVII. 

LESSON XXXIX. 
Summary op Definitions and Principles. 

1 . A primitive is a word that is not derived from another 
word in the language. 

2. A derivative is a word that is derived from some 
other word in the language. 

3. A prefix is a letter or syllable joined to a word at its 
beginning, to form a new word. 

4. A suffix is a letter or syllable joined to a word at its 
end, to form a new word. 

5. Final e, when silent, is lost before a suffix beginning 
with a vowel. 

6. Final y, following a consonant, generally changes to 
i before all suffixes except ing. 

7. Monosyllables and all words accented on the last 
syllable, if they end in a consonant following one vowel, 
double this consonant before a suffix beginning with a 
vowel. 



256 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

8. A compound word is one formed by putting together 
two or more word s. 

9. All compound words have the hyphen at first, but 
generally drop it when they come to be much used. 

Written Examination* 

1. A word that does not grow out of any other word in 
the language is called what ? 

2. Define a " primitive." 

3. A word that does grow out of some other word in the 
language is called what ? 

4. Define a " derivative." 

5. What are the letters or syllables called that are used 
to make new words ? 

6. Define a u prefix." 

7. Define a " suffix." 

8. Make a word from kind by means of a prefix ; an- 
other by means of a suffix. 

9. Give the rule for dropping the final e of create in the 
derivative creator. 

10. Give the rule for changing y of city into i in the 
derivative cities. 

11. Give the rule for doubling the final letter of spin in 
the derivative spinner. 

12. Give the rule for doubling the final letter of occur in 
the derivative occurrence. 

13. What is a compound word ? 

14. In what two ways are compound words written ? 

15. How do you know whether to use the hyphen or not ? 

16. 17, 18, 19, 20. Put the following pairs of words pro- 
perly together, to make compounds : 

rain bow foot ball tomb stone 

steam boat door keeper fire man 

black snake book mark hand cart 

head ache chair man white wash 

day dream man kind water lily 

water melon blind man's butt' Fourth of July 



A PRIMER OP LANGUAGE. 257 



CHAPTER XII. 

HOW WORDS GROW OUT OF OTHER WORDS : 
DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 



LESSON I. 
The Three Degrees. 
[To be read in class.] 
When we say, 

1. Carlo is a kind dog, 

we describe Carlo somewhat by the adjective "kind ;" we 
tell of a quality which lie has. Now suppose we wish to 
compare Carlo with another dog, Beppo, in respect to this 
quality of kindness : we might say, 

2. Beppo is a kinder dog than Carlo is, 

meaning that Beppo has more of this quality of kindness 
than Carlo lias. Suppose, again, we wish to compare 
these two dogs with a third dog, Towser, in respect to this 
quality of kindness : we might say, 

>. Towser is the kindest dog of all, 

meaning by this that Towser has more of this quality of 
kindness than either Beppo or Carlo has. 

By these three statements, (1, 2, 3), we learn that 

1. All three dogs have some of this quality of kindness, 

2. They do not all have it alike, or in the same degree. 

3. Towser has it in the highest degree ; Beppo has it in a 
higher degree than Carlo: and Carlo has it in the lowest 
degree. 

Carlo is kind. Beppo is kinder, Towser is kindest. 



258 A PlilMEH OF LANGUAGE. 

These three adjectives, 

kind, kinder, kindest, 

express three degrees of comparison. These degrees we 
get by comparing one thing with another, or with others. 
We say in a general way that adjectives have three 
degrees of comparison. The lowest degree is called the 
positive ; the next is called the comparative : and the 
highest is called t lie superlative \ thus, 

Pos. Com/par. Supet\ 

kind kinder kindest 

ESP Adjectives have three degrees of comparison, yiz 99 positive 9 
comparative, and superlative. 



LESSON II. 

Incorrect Use of the Superlative. 

[To be read in class.'] 

Suppose you were comparing the two dogs Carlo and 
Beppo in respect to the quality of kindness, and should say 

Beppo is the KINDEST dog. 

This expression would be incorrect. Do yon see why ? 
Let us look at it. "Kindest" is superlative-, but there 
cannot be a superlative without a comparative and positive. 
The superlative is the highest of thiee at least. When 
therefore you are comparing only two persons or things 
together, one of them must be positive, and the other com- 
parative. You should have said 

Beppo is the KINDER dog. 

Written Exercise. 
1. Copy the following, correcting the errors : 

1. Charles and Mary are both good children, but Mary is the best 
scholar. 

2. Washington was the ablest general of the two. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 259 

3. Susan is prettier than Jennie, but Jennie is the loveliest. 

4 The right arm is usually the strongest. 

5. I love Dolly and Pussy both, but I love Dolly the best. 

6. John and James, stand up and see which is the tallest. 

7. Which dog barks the loudest, Carlo, or Beppo ? 

2. flgp The superlative form must not be used when only two 
things are compared.* 



LESSON III. 

EV AND Est. 

[To be read in class.] 

The comparative ami superlative degrees are formed 
from Hie positive in various ways. Adjectives of one 
syllable, ami many of two syllables, form the comparative 
by adding cr to the positive ; and form the superlative by 
adding est to the positive : thus, 

Pos. Compar. Super. 

kind kind er kind est 

sweet sweet er sweet est 

quiet quiet er quiet est 

When you state an adjective 's three degrees of compari- 
son, you are said to compare it.t 





Written 


Exercise. 




J. " Compare ' 


■ the fbllowii 


■g 


adjectives ; 




warm 


firm 




short 


near 


fail- 


strong 




high 


handsome 


small 


weak 




low 


soft 


common 


long 




bitter 


quick 



* Exception ; the words first and last, though superlatives, are used without 
reference to the number of things spoken of. Thus in a race between two, we 
say one comes in first, the other last. 



f Some adjectives cannot be compared, as is evident from their meaning ; as 
infinite, equal, parallel, daily, iveekly, dead, live, perfect, &c. 



260 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



Model : 



Adjectives " Compared." 



Pos. 


Compar. 


Super. 


warm 


warm er 




warm est 


fair 


fair er 




fair est 


small 


small er 




small est 


common 


common 


er 


common est 



2. jy Many adjectives form the comparative and superlative 
by adding: er and est to the positive. 



LESSON IV. 
More and Most. 

[To be read in class.] 

It would not sound well to say, 

interesting er interesting est 

ignorant er ignorant est 

splendid er splendid est 

Instead of using these awkward words, we say : 

more interesting most interesting 

more ignorant most ignorant 

more splendid most splendid 

Most adjectives of more than two syllables, and many 

others besides, form the comparative and superlative by 

adding more and most, instead ofer and est, to the positive. 

Written Exercise. 

1. " Compare " the following adjectives, arranging them 
neatly in a table, like the model of Lesson III : 

careful rapid modest patient 

fragrant active beautiful generous 

elegant delightful industrious watchful 

2. ty Many adjectives form the comparative and superlative 
hy adding more and most to the positive. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



261 



goodest 
baddest 



LESSON V. 

Irregular Comparisons. 
[To be read in class.] 

You would laugh to hear any one say 

good gooder 

bad badder 

The adjectives good and bad should be " compared ,? thus : 

good better best 

bad worse worst 

Observe in these forms that the comimrative and superla- 
tive are entirely different from the positive : " good " and 
" better " have no two letters the same. Forms of com- 
parison like these are called irregular. 



Written Exercise. 
1. Copy the following list of 

Irregular Comparisons. 



Positive. 

good 

well 

bad 

little 

many 

much 

far 

near 

late 

old 

up* 



Comparative. 

better 

better 

worse 

less 

more 

more 

farther, or further 

nearer 

later, or latter 

older, or elder 

upper 



Superlative. 

best 

best 

worst 

least 

most 

most 
farthest, or furthest 
nearest, or next 
latest, or last 
oldest, or eldest 
upmost, or uppermost 



* u Up " and "down," though usually adverbs or prepositions, are occasion- 
ally adjectives j as, the up boat, or the boat going up stream ; the, dowil boat, 
ot the boat going down stream ; the up train ; the (lowil train ; an upgrade ; 
a (loWU grade. 



262 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



[There are other irregular forms of comparison, but the 
above are the most important.] 

2. jgpf* A few adjectives form the comparative and superlative 
irregularly. 



LESSON VI. 
A Spelling-Lesson. 

Written Exercise. 

Copy the following comparisons, and observe the spell- 
ing carefully. Imitate the ruling : 



Pos. 


Compar. 


Super. 


1. A Letter Lost. 


wise 

large 

fine 

feeble 

gentle 


wis er 
larg er 
fin er 
feebl er 
gentl er 


wis est 
larg est 
fin est 
feebl est 
gentl est 




2. A Letter 


Gained. 




hot 

sad 

red 

thin 

big 


hot t er 
sad d er 
red d er 
thin n er 
big g er 


hot t est 
sad d est 
red d est 
thin it est 
big g est 


3. No Change. 


clean 
stout 
quiet 
mean 
broad 


clean er 
stout er 
quiet er 
mean er 
broad er 


clean est 
stout est 
quiet est 
meau est 
broad est 



A PRIMEK OF LANGUAGE. 

4. No Change. 



263 



warm 


warm er 


warm est 


cold 


cold er 


cold est 


hard 


hard er 


hard est 


soft 


soft er 


soft est 


long 


long er 


long est 



5. One Letter Changed into Another. 



pretty 

muddy 

gay 

funny 

tidy 



pretti er 
muddi er 
gay er 
funni er 
tidi er 



pretti est 
muddi est 
gay est 
funni est 
tidi est 



LESSON VII. 
Old Rules Discovered Anew. 
[To be read in class.] 

In set No. 1 of the last lesson, all five adjectives lose 
their final letter when er or est is added. In set No. 2, all 
five adjectives double their final letter when er or est is added. 
In sets No.3 and No.4, all five adjectives remain unchanged 
when er or est is added. In set No. 5, four of the adjectives 
change their final y to i when er or est is added. In the 
other adjective, the y remains unchanged. Let us see if 
we can tell why all this is so. 

1. All the positives of set No. 1 end in e, and all lose the 
e in the comparative and superlative — that is, when they 
take the suffixes er and est. 

2. All the positives of set No. 2 end in a consonant fol- 
lowing one vowel, and all gain a letter in the comparative 
and superlative — that is, when they take the suffixes er 

and est. 



264 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

3. All the positives of set No. 3 end in a consonant fol- 
lowing two vowels, and they neither gain nor lose in the 
comparative and superlative. 

4. All the positives of set No. 4 end in a consonant fol- 
lowing another consonant, and they neither gain nor lose 
in the comparative and superlative. 

5. All the positives of set No. 5 end in y. In four of 
them this y follows a consonant, and is changed into i be- 
fore the suffixes er and est. In the other one the y follows 
a vowel, and remains unchanged in the comparative and 
superlative. 

If we were to examine many more adjectives we should 
find the same to be true of them all. We therefore con- 
clude as follows : 

1. If an adjective ends in e, this letter is lost before the 
suffixes er and est. 

2. If an adjective ends in a consonant following one 
vowel, the final letter is doubled before the suffixes er and 
est. 

3. If an adjective ends in y following a consonant, the y 
is generally # changed into i before the suffixes er and est. 
If it ends in y following a vowel, the y remains unchanged, 

4. Other adjectives remain unchanged before the suffixes 
er and est. 

You need not learn the above four statements. Do you 
remember having already learned some rules very much 
like them ? In the next lesson I will tell you what those 
rules are. 



* There are some exceptions to the rule : as shy, Sliyer> shyest > Sly, 

slyer, slyest ; spry, spryer, spry est. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 265 

LESSON VIII. 
Final e Lost. 
In Chapter XT, Lesson VII you learned that 
Final e 9 when silent, is lost before a suffix beginning with a 
vowel ; as, make, mak ing. 

In the last lesson yon read that if an adjective ends in 
e, this letter is lost before the suffixes er and est. Do you 
observe that the above rule for " final e " covers the pre- 
sent case exactly ? 

Written Exercise. 

1. Now write the comparison of the following adjectives 
according* to the model of Lesson III. 

nice fierce true wide brave coarse 

severe able wide simple late ample 

2. yf~ Final e, when silent, is lost before a suffix beginning 
with a vowel. 

3 a®" Adjectives have three degrees of comparison— positive, 
comparative and superlative. 

LESSON IX. 
Pinal Letter Doubled. 
[To be read in class.] 

In Chapter X., Lesson XII. yon learned that 
Monosyllables, that end in a consonant following one vowel, 
double this consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel ; 

as, grab, grab b inge 

In Lesson VII. of the present chapter you read that if 
an adjective ends in a consonant following one vowel, the 
final letter is doubled before the suffixes er and est. Do 
you observe that the above rule for doubling the final 
letter covers the present case exactly ? 



266 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



Written Exercise. 

1. Xow write the comparison of the following adjectives 
according' to the model of Lesson ILL 



fat 


mad 


fit 


glad 


flat 


near 


short 


fierce 


hot 


nice 


wild 


big 


clean 


red 


deep 


scarce 


sad 


mild 


sharp 


kind 



2. jy Monosyllables, that end in a consonant following one 
yowel, double this consonant before a suffix beginning with a 
rowel. 



LESSON X. 

Final y Changed to i. 

[To be read in class.] 

In Chapter XL, Lesson X., yon learned that 

Final j 9 when it follows a consonant, generally changes to i 
before all suffixes except ing. 

In Lesson VII. of the present chapter you read that if 
an adjective ends in y following a consonant, the y is 
changed into i before the suffixes er and est. Do you ob- 
serve that the above rule for u final y 7, covers the present 
case exactly ? 

Written Exercise, 

1. Now write the comparison of the following adjectives 
according to the model of Lesson III. 

easy sly spry manly shy 

airy dirty hardy pietty silky 

happy showy starry silly hilly 

pretty spicy gaudy smoky petty 

2. £3P Final ?/, when it follows a consonant, generally changes 
to i before all suffixes except ing. 



glad 


lovely 


short 


brave 


near 


lazy 


wide 


fair 



A 1'RIMER OF LANGUAGE. 267 

LESSON XI. 

Miscellaneous Comparisons. 
Written Exercise. 

1. Compare the following* adjectives, and arrange tbeiri 
neatly in a table : 

wild wise clear 

fat shady gay 

sharp mad handy 

flat crazy mild 

2 &1F* Adjectives have three degrees of comparison— positive, 
comparative and superlative. 

3. 2£p~ Monosyllables, that end in a consonant following one 
vowel, double this consonant before a suffix beginning with a 
vowel. 

LESSON XII. 

Miscellaneous Comparisons. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Compare the following adjectives, and arrange them 
neatly in a table . 

kind 
saucy 
late 
sleepy 

2. jg-f- Final e, when silent, is lost before a suffix beginning 
with a vowel. 

3. ^" Final y, when it follows a consonant, generally changes 
to i before all suffixes except ing* 

LESSON XIII. 
Adverbs Formed prom Adjectives 
[To be read in class.] 

Have you noticed that many adverbs end in ly*l as, 



sorry 


fit 


small 


large 


thick 


tardy 


hoarse 


thin 



sweaty 


rare 


big 


funny 


early 


deep 


dear 


hot 



* See note on page 82. 



268 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



The pig eats greedily; Mary sings sweetly. If we cut off 
the syllable ly from "sweetly," we have the adjective 
sweet. If we cut off the syllable ly from "greedily," we 
have greedi ; then changing i to p, we have the adjective 
greedy. So we say that the adverb "sweetly " is formed 
from the adjective sweet by adding ly, and the adverb 
" greedily " is formed from the adjective greedy by chang- 
ing y to t, and adding ly. There are a great many adverbs 
thus formed from adjectives. 

Written Eocercise. 



1. Form mV 


verbs in tliij- 


> way fi 


oin 


the following adjec- 


tives : 












hard 


soft 


sharp 




brave 


strong 


high 


dear 


loud 




noisy 


tough 


tender 


cold 


warm 




wise 


foolish 


mournful 


plain 


bright 




faint 


great 


sure 


real 


heavy 




merry weary 


just 


hitter 


sweet 




strange common 


deep 


frequent 


light 




usual 


equal 


cheerful 


wicked 


perfect 




scarce 


complete 


Model : 












Adj. 


Adv. 


Adj. 


Adv. 


hard 


hard ly 




heayy 




heav i ly 


noisy 


nois i ly 




equal 




equal ly 



2. §W° Many adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding ly. 



LESSON XIV. 

Adverbs Formed prom Adjectives. 

The adjective gentle is formed into an adverb by chang- 
ing le to ly ; thus, gent le, gent ly. There are a good 
many of this kind. 



A TRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 



269 



Written Exercise. 

1. Convert the following adjectives into adverbs in this 
way, arranging them neatly in a table, as in the last 
lesson : 



able 


double 


feeble 


honorable 


curable 


legible 


credible 


laughable 


unavoidable 


excusable 


amiable 


idle 


respectable 


visible 


agreeable 


admirable 


creditable 


probable 


illegible 


disagreeable 



2. j®~ Many adverbs are formed from adjectives by changing 
le to ly. 

LESSON XV. 
Adverbs Turned Back into Adjectives. 
Written Exercise. 
1, Turn the following adverbs back into the adjectives 
they are formed from : 



visibly 


swiftly 


noisily 


greatly 


agreeably 


merrily 


gladly 


sweetly 


feebly 


strongly 


saucily 


completely 


ably 


usually 


doubly 


heavily 


really 


probably 


wearily 


amiably 


Model : 








Adv. 


Adj. 


Adv. 


Adj. 


visibly 


visible 


merrily 


merry 


noisily 


noisy 


swiftly 


swift 



2. (fc^r Many adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding ly. 

3. GUp Many adverbs are formed from adjectives by changing 
le to ly. 



LESSON XVI. 

Review : Comparison. 

[To be studied.] 

If three persons are strong, but have different degrees ot 
strength, we might compare them in reference to their 



270 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

strength by saying that one was strong, another stronger, 
and the third strongest. These are called degrees of com- 
parison. The first is called the positive degree, the second 
the comparative degree, and the third the superlative de- 
gree. 

As this is true of adjectives in general, we say that ad- 
jectives have three degrees of comparison, positive, compar- 
ative and superlative. The two last are formed from the 
first, usually, by adding the suffixes er and est ; as 

strong, stronger, strongest. 

Sometimes they are formed by simply using the words 
more and most along with the positive ; as 

interesting, more interesting, most interesting. 
Sometimes the comparative and superlative are irregular; 
as, 

good, better, best. 
When you state an adjective's three degrees of compari- 
son, you are said to compare it. 

LESSON XVII. 
Review of Lesson V. 

LESSON XVIII. 
Review of Lesson VI. 

LESSON XIX. 
Review: Three Important Rules. 
[To be studied.'] 

You learned in a previous chapter that 
1. Final e, when silent, is lost before a suffix beginning 
with a vowel. Comparing brave, and observing this rule, 
we have 

brave, brav er, brav est. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 271 

2. Monosyllables, that end in a consonant following one 
vowel, double this consonant before a suffix beginning 
with a vowel. 

Comparing hot, and observing this rule, we have 
hot, hot t er, hot t est. 

3. Final y, when it follows a consonant, generally 
changes to i before all suffixes except ing. 

Comparing dry, and observing this rule, we have 

dry, dri er, dri est. 

LESSON XX. 
Review of Lesson XL 



LESSON XXI. 
Review of Lesson XIL 

LESSON XXII. 
Review of Lesson XIII. 

LESSON XXIII. 
Review of Lesson XLV. 

LESSON XXIV. 

Summary of Definitions and Principles. 

1. Adjectives have three degrees of comparison, viz., 
positive, comparative and superlative. 

2. The superlative form must not be used when only 
two things are compared. 



272 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

3. Most adjectives form the comparative and superlative 
by adding er and est to the positive. 

4. Many adjectives form the comparative and superla- 
tive by adding more and most to the positive. 

5. A few adjectives form the comparative and superla- 
tive irregularly. 

6. Many adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding 
ly. 

7. Many adverbs are formed from adjectives by chang- 
ing le to ly. 



LESSON XXV. 
Written Examination. 

1. Compare strong. 

2. What are the three degrees of comparison called ? 

3. How are the comparative and superlative usually 
formed ? 

4. In what other way sometimes ? 

5. Compare good, bad, much, far, many. 

6. Give the rule for dropping the final e of wise in the 
comparative and superlative. 

7. Give the rule for doubling the final letter of big in the 
comparative and superlative. 

8. Give the rule for changing the final y of funny into i 
in the comparative and superlative. 

9. The adverb sweetly is derived from what ? 

10. The adverb greedily is derived from what ? 

11. The adverb gently is derived from what ? 

12. Convert the following adjectives into adverbs : able, 
feeble, idle, probable* 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 273 



CHAPTER XIII. 

THE HYPHEN ; QUOTATION-MARKS ; DIVISIONS IN 
POETRY AND PROSE. 



LESSON I. 
Divide Words at Their Joints ; the Hyphen. 
[To be read in class.] 

If I should take hold of your arm and try to bend it 
where there was no joint, you would probably laugh at 
me. But children often treat words in that way when 
they are writing compositions. For example, if they hap- 
pen to be writing the word school at the end of a line, and 
there is not room enough for the whole word, they will 
sometimes carry the end of it to the next line, thus - - sch 
ooL This is wrong. When I am carving a fowl at dinner, 
T separate the parts at the joints ; and that is the way 
words must be treated They must be divided at their 
joints, if they have any; if they do not have any, they 
must not be divided at all. If you have a long word like 
school, (which has no joint), to write just as you get near 
the end of the line, and there is not room for it there with- 
out crowding, .don't begin it on that line, but leave a space 
there, and write the whole word on the next line. Ablank 
space at the end of a line does not look badly, but a 
crowded jumble of letters always looks badly ; and divid- 
ing a word that has no joint in it is a gross blunder. 

Words of one syllable have no joint ; words of two syl- 
lables have one joint ; words of three syllables have two 
joints, and so on ; as, 

school (one syllable ; no joint) 



274 



A PRIMER OP LANGUAGE. 



sckol ar (two syllables; one joint) 

schol ar ship (three syllables ; two joints) 

You see what I mean by joints : they are the places 
where the parts (or syllables) come together, or are joined. 
Whenever you are writing, and it is necessary for you to 
divide a word, imagine yourself carving a chicken, and cut 
for the joint. When a word is divided in this way, attach 
a short line to the first part of the word, thus, SChol-arsllip 5 
or scholar-ship« This line is called a hyphen, H8 you have 
already learned, and shows that the word is unfinished. 



LESSON II. 

The Hyphen. 

Written Exercise. 



Mark the joints of th 
any, by separating their 
hap pi er, child : 



e following words, if they have 
syllables; thus, hur rah, feel ing y 



hurrah 


securely 


feeling 


frightened 


happier 


except 


silence 


highest 


committee 


standing 


writing 


flowing 


written 


beautiful 


chairman 


prettiest 


anything 


groceries 


graceful 


service 


nothing 


directly 


March 


November 


enough 


through 


cruel 


children 


mother 


because 


grandfather 


distress 


child 


understand 


perfectly 


business 


amusement 


impatient 


imperfection 


question 



LESSON III. 

The Hyphen. 

Written Exercise. 

Write ten words of one syllable, ten of two syllables, ami 
ten of three syllables, and mark their joints, if they have 
any, as in Lesson II. Get them out of a book if you wish. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 275 

LESSON IV. 
The Hyphen : A Lesson for Practice. 
Written Exercise. 
Copy the following* stories ;* and when yon come near 
the end of each line, measure the space with your eye to 
see if the next word, or a part of it, if it has a joint, will 
fit there without crowding : if not, leave the space blank 
and go to the next line; Whenever yon divide a word, re- 
member to attach the hyphen. 

The Dog and the Shadow. 

A dog had stolen a piece of meat out of a butcher's shop, and was 
crossing a river on his way home, when he saw his own shadow re- 
flected in the stream below. Thinking that it was another dog with 
another piece of meat, he resolved to make himself master of that 
also ; but in snapping at the supposed treasure, he dropped the bit 
he was carrying and so lost all. 

Moral : Be content with what you have, and do not risk it in the 
endeavor to seize what is beyond your reach. 

Hercules and the Wagoner, 

As a countryman was carelessly driving his wagon along a miry 
lane, his wheels stuck so deep in the clay that the horses came to a 
stand-still. Upon this the man, without making the least effort of 
his own, began to call upon Herculesf to come and help him out of 
his trouble. But Hercules bade him lay his shoulder to the wheel, 
assuring him that heaven only aids those who endeavor to help 
themselves. 

Moral : It is in vain to expect our prayers to be heard, if we do 
not strive as well as pray, ^Esop's Fables. 

LESSON V. 
Quotation- Marks. 

[To be read in class.] 

1. The spider said to the fly, " Will you come into my 
parlor V 9 

2. The spider asked the fly if he would came into her 
parlor. 

* Note to the teacher; It may be well to require the class to copy one of 
these stories on paper, and the other on the board. To copy both on paper may 
perhaps make too long a lesson. 

f An imaginary divinity. 



276 A -PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

In the first of (lie above sentences, the exact words 
which the spider spoke to the fly are repeated, while in the 
second sentence, only the substance * of the invitation is 
stated. When in writing, yon repeat (or quote) the exact 
words of another person, (or of yourself on some previous 
occasion), you must use quotation-marks at the beginning 
and end of the passage: thus, 

" Will you come into my parlor ? ' ' 

Observe that the last two marks are like commas, and 
the first like commas turned upside down. 

Written Exercise* 
1. Copy the following : 

1. The dying Lawrence said to his men, " Don't give up the ship." 

2. I called out, " Who goes there ?" 

3. Patrick Henry closed his speech with these words : " Give me 
liberty, or give me death." 

4. He answered, " No !" 

5. The subject ot Mary's composition was, " The Four Seasons." 

6. u I don't know," said Charles, " what to say." 

Observe that in the last example the quoted passage is 
broken in two, and the quotation -marks are introduced at 
the beginning and end of each part. 

2. ]gg- When, in writing, yon repeat (or quote) the exact 
words of another person, (or of yourself on some previous occasion), 
you must use quotation-marks at the beginning and end of the 
passage, or at the beginning and end of each part of the passage 
if it be broken in two. 

LESSON VI. 
Quotation-marks. 
Written Exercise. 
1. Copy the following; observe that most of the quota- 
tions begin with capitals : 



* The " substance" of a remark is its general meaning. 



A l'RIMER OF LANGUAGE. 277 

1. When they came in sight of the pond, the ducks cried out, 
" Quack ! Quack !" and ran into the water. 

2. Carlo said, •' Bow ! Wow T' by which I think he meant, " What 
do you want V 

3. Little Frankie called out as he came down stairs and espied his 
father, " Dood mornin', Papa !" 

4. " Dear me !" exclaimed aunty, " Are you hurt, Charles ?" 

5. Mary asked, " Where are you going, Charley?" 

6. Mary asked Charley where he was going. 

7. Franklin says, " Honesty is the best policy." 

8. Franklin says that " honesty is the best policy." 

9. Franklin speaks of honesty as " the best policy." 

[Observe that No. 5 of the above examples is the same 
in substance as No. 6, but no quotation-marks are used in 
the latter, because it does not give the exact words that 
were spoken. 

Observe also that the quotation in No. 8 is introduced 
by the conjunction that and the quotation in No. 9 is intro- 
duced by the conjunction as : in these cases the quotation 
does not begin with a capital ; in the other cases it does.] 

2. SklF 3 When the quotation makes sense by itself, and is not in- 
troduced by a conjunction, it must begin with a capital. 



LESSON VII. 

Quotation- Marks : A Test-Lesson. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Copy the following, correcting all errors : 

1. Bob shouted Merry Christmas ! 

2. What would you do, asked father, if a boy you were playing 
with should swear. 

3. The poor woman cried out, please give me a penny. 

4. I am sorry, said the child, but mother told me to come right 
home. 

5. Jimmy asked where do you go to school, Marry ? 



278 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

6. Mary replied that she went to the High School. 

7. Joseph said, I love my little sister. 

8. Joseph said he loved his little sister. 

2. K2P When, in writing-, you repeat (or quote) the exact 
words of another person, (or of yourself on some previous occasion), 
you must use quotation-marks at the beginning 1 and end of the 
passage, or at the beginning' and end of each part of the passage 
if it be broken in two. 

3. 2£p~ When the quotation makes sense by itself, and is not in- 
troduced by a conjunction, it must begin with a capital. 

LESSON VIII. 

Quotation- M arks . 

Written Exercise. 

1. Copy the following correctly : 

What is this, Charley ? said Papa to his boy. As he spoke he 
showed the lad a little box. He opened it and out came a thing like 
a snake. 

It is not alive, said Charley. 

How do you know that ? asked his papa. 

Because a real snake bites, Charley replied. 

2. fl£p~ When, in writing, you repeat (or quote) the exact words 
of another person, (or of yourself on some previous occasion), you 
must use quotation-marks at the beginning and end of the passage, 
or at the beginning and end of each part of the passage, if it be 
broken in two. 

3. %W When the quotation makes sense by itself, and is not in- 
troduced by a conjunction, it must begin with a capital. 

LESSON IX. 
Divisions in Poetry and Prose. 
[To be read in class.] 

Nell and Her Bird. 

Good-bye, little birdie ! Tell all the birdies 

Fly to the sky, Flying above, 

Singing and singing Nell, in the garden, 

A merry good-bye. Sends them her love. 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 279 

Tell how I found you, 

Hurt in a tree ; 
Then, when they're wounded, 

They'll come right to me. 

We notice in the above little poem that it is divided into 
three parts of four lines each. These t hree partis are called 
Stall/as or verses.* Next, we notice that every line begins 
with a capital. 

Here is a story in prose . 

The Little Chimney- Sweepers. 

Some kind persons wished to collect all the chimney-sweepers in 
Dublin, to teach them to read the Bible. 

One little boy was asked if he could read. He said, " Yes."' Then 
he was asked where he went to school. He said he had never been 
to school at all, and he never had any book. It was a wonder how 
he could have learned to read ; but the case was this. Another 
little sweeper, rather older than he, had taught him to read by show- 
ing him the letters over the shop-doois as they passed along the 
streets. 

See what may be done by trying and taking pains. 

Like the poem, we notice that this little piece is divided 
into three parts also; but they are of # di£ferent lengths. 
These parts are called paragraphs. Next, we notice that 
all these paragraphs begin further to the right than the 
other lines. 

The divisions in poetry {stanzas) are regular ; they all 
have the same number of lines,! without reference to the 
sense. But the divisions in prose (paragraphs) have no 
regular length, being longer or shorter as the sense re- 
quires. 

In prose, when the subject takes a slight turn a new 
paragraph is required. A new paragraph is like a bend 
in the road you are travelling upon : you do not enter an- 
other road, but only change your course a little. When 
the subject takes an abrupt % turn, a new 7 chapter is re. 
quired : this is as if a traveller should enter on a new road. 



* Strictly speaking, a " verse" is a line of poetry j but in common usage, 
it means the same as " stanza." 

•j- This is usually the case, but not always, 
J " Abrupt " means sudden, unexpected. 



280 A PRIMER -OF LANGUAGE. 

In prose, when the subject takes A SLIGHT TURN a new 
paragraph is required : when it takes AN ABRUPT TURN, a, 
new chapter is required. 

Look at any page of a printed book, and you will see 
that there is a space left on every side of the page. These 
spaces are called margins. I" manuscript,* it is cus- 
tomary to leave a margin only at the top and left side of 
the page. Each of these should he about half ait inch 
wide. Be careful not to crowd your words at the end of 
the line. It is better not to write to the very edge. 

Written Exercise. 

1. Copy the above little poem and the prose piece. 

2. B^~ Every line in poetry must begin with a capital. 

3. |^~ In prose, when the subject takes a slight turn, a new 
paragraph is required ; when it takes an abrupt turn, a new 
chapter is required, 

LESSON X. 

Keview : The Hyphen. 

[To be studied.'] 

Monosyllables must not be broken. Dissyllables can be 
broken in one place only — at the joint; that is, where the 
two syllables are joined ; and when so broken, a short, 
horizontal line, called the hyphen (=-) must be attached to 
the first part, to show that the word is unfinished. Tris- 
syllables can be broken in two places, and so on. 

Written Exercise. 
Write ten monosyllables, ten dissyllables and ten tris- 
syllables, and mark their joints, if they have any, by sepa- 
rating their parts. 

LESSON XL 

Quotation-Marks. 
[To be studied.] 

When, in writing, you repeat words used on a previous 

occasion, (either by another person, or by yourself), marks 

* '• Manuscript " means written by hand* 



A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 281 

called quotation-marks must be introduced at the beginning 
and end of the passage, as 

The spider said to the fly, " WILL YOU COME INTO MY 
PARLOR ? w 

"PUSSY," said little May, "YOU ARE NAUGHTY TO 
SCRATCH ME." 

Written Exercise. 

1. Copy the examples of Lesson V. 

2. my When, in writing, you repeat (or quote) the exact 
words of another person, (or of yourself on some previous occasion), 
you must use quotation-marks at the beginning and end of the 
passage, or at the beginning and end of each part of the passage, 
if it be broken in two. 

LESSON XII. 
lieview of Lesson VI. 

LESSON XIII. 
Review of Lesson IX. 

LESSON XIV. 
Summary of Definitions and Principles. 

1. When, in writing, you repeat (or quote) the exact 
words of another person, (or of yourself on some previous 
occasion), you must use quotation-marks at the beginning 
and end of the passage, or at the beginning and end of 
each part of the passage, if it be broken in two. 

2. When the quotation makes sense by itself, and is not 
introduced by a conjunction, it must begin with a capital. 

3. In prose, when the subject takes a slight turn, a new 
paragraph is required : when it takes an abrupt turn, a 
new chapter is required. 

4. The divisions in prose are called paragraphs. They 
are longer or shorter according to the sense. 

5. The divisions in poetry are called stanzas, or verses. 
In the same poem they have the same number of lines. 

6. A "margin " is a space left at the side of the page in 
printing or writing. 



282 A PRIMER OF LANGUAGE. 

LESSON XV. 
Written Examination. 

1. What is the hyphen ? 

2. What words cannot be divided ? 

3. Where must words be divided, if at all ? 

4. What do yon mean by the " joints " of a word ? 

5. How many joints has a monosyllable ? a dissyllable r 
a trissyllable ? 

6. Divide the following words properly : pleasure, cal- 
culation, indescribable, difficulty. 

7. What are quotation-marks ? Make a set. 

8. Mark the following sentence properly : 

I dont know said Charles what to say. 

9. Give the rule for marking the example in question 
No. 8. 

10. When must a quotation begin with a capital ? 
11-13. Write the following sentences correctly : 

1. William asked where do you go to school Mary. 

2. Mary replied that she went to the High Scliool. 

3. Franklin says that honesty is the best policy. 

14. Iu poetry, the divisions made up of a certain num- 
ber of lines are called what ? 

15. How should every line of poetry begin ? 

16. The divisions in prose are called what? 

17. How do these divisions differ from those in poetry ? 

18. In writing, how must you begin each new paragraph? 

19. When do you begin a new paragraph? 

20. What is a margin ? 

21. In printed books where do you find a margin ? 

22. In manuscript, it is customary to leave a margin 

where ? 

23. About how wide should this be ? 






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